The Septuagint: Origin and Historical Development

The Greek Septuagint, designated LXX (from the Latin septuaginta, “seventy”), is the most significant ancient translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its origins are traced back to the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 B.C.E.), the Greek ruler of Egypt. According to the Letter of Aristeas, a traditional but historically questionable source, 72 Jewish scholars—six from each of the twelve tribes—were commissioned to translate the Law of Moses (the Pentateuch) into Greek for inclusion in the Library of Alexandria. While the authenticity of the narrative is debated, the translation of the Pentateuch into Greek was a real and consequential event, likely completed around 250 B.C.E.

Following the translation of the Torah, the remaining books of the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek over the next century and a half. The full corpus was likely completed by 150 B.C.E., though the translation quality varied depending on the book and translator. Some renderings were slavishly literal; others paraphrastic or interpretive, reflecting the theological and cultural context of Hellenistic Judaism.

Eventually, the name “Septuagint” (LXX) came to refer to the entire Greek version of the Old Testament, including, at times, the so-called Apocryphal or Deuterocanonical books, many of which were not found in the Hebrew Masoretic Text but were commonly included in the Alexandrian tradition. These additions appeared in many later manuscripts of the Septuagint and were likely inserted in the post-completion phase.

The Use of the Septuagint by Early Christians

The Greek Septuagint played a critical role in the spread of Christianity, especially in Greek-speaking regions of the Roman Empire. The writers of the New Testament frequently quoted from the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew text. This is evident in places where the wording in the Greek differs significantly from the Hebrew Masoretic Text, yet matches New Testament citations exactly. Examples include Matthew 1:23 (citing Isaiah 7:14) and Hebrews 10:5 (citing Psalm 40:6). The wide use of the Septuagint among early Christians ensured its preservation, even while Jewish communities gradually abandoned it due to its Christian associations.

Early Manuscript Witnesses of the Septuagint

The textual history of the Septuagint is both rich and complex. Among the earliest extant manuscripts are several papyrus fragments dating from before the Christian era:

Papyrus Rylands 957 (P. Rylands iii. 458): Dating to the second century B.C.E., this is one of the oldest known Septuagint manuscripts. It preserves sections of Deuteronomy (23:24–24:3; 25:1–3; 26:12, 17–19; 28:31–33). This papyrus, housed in the John Rylands Library in Manchester, is an invaluable witness to the early text of the Greek Pentateuch.

Papyrus Fouad 266: A first-century B.C.E. manuscript containing portions of Deuteronomy. It is notable for its inclusion of the Tetragrammaton (JHVH) written in square Hebrew script within the Greek text, confirming the Jewish reverence for the divine name and its use within the Greek text prior to Christian redaction. This usage contradicts later Christian scribal tendencies to replace the divine name with κύριος (“Lord”).

These papyri show that the Septuagint was actively used in Jewish communities before and during the early Christian period, and that it maintained features (like the divine name in Hebrew) that would later be obscured in Christian transmission.

Major Uncial Manuscripts of the Septuagint

The three most complete and influential codices of the Septuagint from the early Christian centuries are:

Codex Vaticanus (B, Vaticanus Graecus 1209): Dated to the fourth century C.E., this is one of the most authoritative manuscripts of both the Greek Old and New Testaments. Its Septuagint portion is nearly complete and follows a relatively conservative Alexandrian textual tradition.

Codex Sinaiticus (ℵ or Aleph): Also from the fourth century C.E., this manuscript was discovered at St. Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai. While it once contained the complete Old Testament in Greek, portions are now lost. Nevertheless, it is an indispensable witness to the early Septuagint tradition.

Codex Alexandrinus (A): From the fifth century C.E., this codex preserves a substantial portion of the Septuagint, including most of the Old Testament. It reflects a more Byzantine textual flavor in some parts and includes apocryphal books such as 3 Maccabees and Psalm 151.

These uncial manuscripts not only preserve different textual traditions of the Greek Old Testament but also exhibit the development and expansion of the Septuagint canon, especially in Christian contexts.

Other Greek Versions: Aquila, Theodotion, Symmachus

In response to the rising dominance of Christianity and its use of the Septuagint, Jewish scholars in the second century C.E. produced new Greek translations of the Hebrew Scriptures:

Aquila of Pontus: A Jewish proselyte and student of Rabbi Akiba, Aquila created a hyper-literal Greek translation around 130 C.E. His goal was to counter Christian use of the Septuagint by closely aligning his translation with the Hebrew text. Although his complete version is lost, it survives in patristic citations and fragments from the Hexapla.

Theodotion: Likely a Hellenistic Jew or a Jewish Christian, Theodotion’s version, dating to the late second century C.E., represents a revision of the Septuagint with greater fidelity to the Hebrew. His translation of Daniel, in particular, was adopted by the early Church in place of the original Septuagint version, which it found less satisfactory. Theodotion’s Daniel remains standard in many Septuagint manuscripts.

Symmachus: Around 200 C.E., Symmachus, likely an Ebionite or Jewish-Christian scholar, produced a smoother, more idiomatic Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. His work prioritized clarity and style over literalism. As with Aquila and Theodotion, his version is known primarily through citations and fragments preserved by Church Fathers.

Each of these three versions highlights the complex Jewish-Christian interaction over scriptural interpretation during the early centuries of the Common Era. They also underscore the diverse approaches to translation—from Aquila’s word-for-word style to Symmachus’ sense-for-sense philosophy.

Origen and the Hexapla

Origen of Alexandria (ca. 185–254 C.E.) sought to clarify the relationship between the Hebrew Scriptures and their Greek translations by compiling the monumental Hexapla (“sixfold”), completed around 245 C.E. This massive reference work arranged six parallel columns:

1. The Hebrew consonantal text

2. A Greek transliteration of the Hebrew

3. Aquila’s translation

4. Symmachus’ version

5. The Septuagint (revised by Origen)

6. Theodotion’s translation

In some books, Origen also added columns from lesser-known Greek versions, labeled Quinta, Sexta, and Septima. The purpose of the Hexapla was to present all known textual traditions side by side for comparison and analysis.

Although no complete manuscript of the Hexapla survives, fragments and references preserved by Eusebius, Jerome, and others provide insight into Origen’s textual scholarship. Unfortunately, Origen’s use of critical signs (asterisks and obelisks) to mark additions or discrepancies has often been omitted or misunderstood by later scribes, leading to considerable confusion in some Septuagint manuscripts.

The Septuagint and Textual Criticism

The value of the Septuagint for Old Testament textual criticism is immense. In many instances, it preserves Hebrew readings older than those in the Masoretic Text. For example, the Septuagint version of 1 Samuel and Jeremiah often aligns with readings from the Dead Sea Scrolls, suggesting access to a different Hebrew Vorlage (base text). It offers an important witness to the textual fluidity of the Hebrew Bible in the Second Temple period.

However, the Septuagint is not monolithic. The Greek translations vary in quality and textual base. Parts of the Septuagint are considered superior to the Masoretic Text for reconstructing the original Hebrew (e.g., parts of Isaiah and Job), while other portions are heavily paraphrased or interpolated (e.g., Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel).

Thus, scholars must evaluate each book of the Septuagint independently, taking into account the quality of translation, textual alignment with Hebrew witnesses, and the manuscript tradition.

Conclusion: Enduring Significance

The Greek Septuagint and its subsequent revisions represent one of the most critical developments in the history of biblical transmission. It was the Bible of the early Church, the foundation for many Christian theological formulations, and a window into the textual state of the Hebrew Scriptures in antiquity. Alongside other Greek versions and Origen’s Hexapla, the Septuagint remains central to biblical scholarship, providing comparative evidence for determining the original text of the Old Testament.

Its preservation in ancient papyri, uncial codices, and later manuscripts ensures that the Septuagint continues to serve as a vital textual witness. When examined alongside the Hebrew Masoretic Text, Dead Sea Scrolls, and other ancient versions (such as the Syriac Peshitta, Latin Vulgate, and the Armenian and Georgian Bibles), the Septuagint significantly enriches our understanding of the transmission and preservation of Scripture.

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