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The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Introduction to Codex Laudianus 35

Codex Laudianus 35, also known as E or Ea, is a significant Greek-Latin diglot manuscript of the New Testament. It is an important textual witness to the Acts of the Apostles and is housed in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. This manuscript is part of the larger collection of ancient New Testament manuscripts that provide critical insights into the textual history of the New Testament writings.

Date of Codex Laudianus 35

The dating of Codex Laudianus 35 is generally placed between 500-600 C.E. This period marks the early Byzantine era, a time of substantial manuscript production and preservation. The dating is based on paleographic analysis, examining the style and features of the script used in the manuscript. The form of the uncial script, the use of certain letter shapes, and other scribal conventions all contribute to this dating.

Content of Codex Laudianus 35

Codex Laudianus 35 contains the Acts of the Apostles, making it a crucial source for textual criticism of this New Testament book. The manuscript is written in Greek and Latin, with the Greek text on the left-hand page and the Latin text on the right-hand page. This diglot format indicates that the manuscript was likely used for both liturgical purposes and textual study. The presence of the Latin Vulgate alongside the Greek text suggests it was used in a context where both languages were understood and valued, possibly in a monastic or scholarly setting.

Physical Features of Codex Laudianus 35

The physical features of Codex Laudianus 35 provide valuable information about its origin and use. The manuscript is composed of parchment leaves, which was the standard material for high-quality manuscripts of this period. The script is an uncial, characterized by large, rounded letters written in a continuous script without spaces between words. This style was common in the Byzantine period and indicates a careful and professional scribe.

The codex comprises 227 leaves, with the text arranged in a two-column format. The dimensions of the leaves are approximately 27 by 22 centimeters, suggesting it was designed for both portability and readability. The manuscript’s layout, with clear and evenly spaced lines, indicates it was intended for frequent use, possibly in a liturgical or instructional context.

Textual Character of Codex Laudianus 35

The textual character of Codex Laudianus 35 is complex, reflecting a mixture of textual traditions. This codex exhibits readings from various text-types, including the Byzantine, Western, and Alexandrian. The manuscript’s unique blend of readings provides valuable insight into the textual history of the Acts of the Apostles.

Mixture of Text-Types

Codex Laudianus 35 is notable for its eclectic nature, containing a mix of readings from different text-types. According to Kurt Aland, this codex agrees with the Byzantine text-type 36 times. In cases where the Byzantine and Alexandrian text-types share the same reading, Codex Laudianus 35 aligns with them 21 times. Additionally, it agrees with the Alexandrian text-type against the Byzantine 22 times and has 22 distinctive readings (Sonderlesarten). This diverse alignment places Codex Laudianus 35 in Category II of Aland’s classification, indicating that it is a valuable witness with a significant degree of independence and a mixture of text-types.

Significant Textual Variants

Several notable textual variants in Codex Laudianus 35 illustrate its importance in textual criticism:

Acts 8:37: This verse, which reads, “And Philip said, ‘If you believe with all your heart, you may.’ And he replied, ‘I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God,'” is included in Codex Laudianus 35. Most Greek manuscripts omit this verse, but it is also found in manuscripts such as 323, 453, 945, 1739, 1891, 2818, and others. The inclusion of Acts 8:37 in Codex Laudianus 35 aligns it with the Western text-type tradition, which often contains additional explanatory verses.

Acts 12:25: The Latin text of Codex Laudianus 35 reads “from Jerusalem to Antioch” along with manuscripts 429, 945, 1739, p, syrp, copsa, and geo. This contrasts with the Majority Text, which reads “to Jerusalem.” This variant indicates a textual tradition that emphasizes the missionary journey of Paul and Barnabas, reflecting a Western text-type influence.

Acts 16:10: Codex Laudianus 35 reads θεος (God) along with important Alexandrian manuscripts such as P74, Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, Ephraemi, 044, 33, 81, 181, 326, 630, 945, 1739, ar, e, l, vg, copbo, and geo. Other manuscripts, including the Western text-type D, P, 049, 056, 0142, and various Byzantine manuscripts, read κυριος (Lord). The agreement with the Alexandrian text here highlights the manuscript’s alignment with early, high-quality textual witnesses.

Acts 18:26: The reading την οδον του κυριου (the way of the Lord) is supported by Codex Laudianus 35 and other manuscripts like 1505, 2495, and lectionary 598. This variant underscores the teaching emphasis on following the way of the Lord, a characteristic of early Christian instruction.

Acts 20:28: In this verse, Codex Laudianus 35 reads του κυριου (of the Lord) along with Papyrus 74, C*, D, Ψ, 33, 36, 453, 945, 1739, and 1891. This contrasts with the Byzantine reading του θεου (of God). The alignment with early and diverse manuscripts supports the reading’s authenticity and its theological emphasis on the Lordship of Christ.

Independent and Distinctive Readings

The 22 independent or distinctive readings (Sonderlesarten) in Codex Laudianus 35 further highlight its unique textual character. These readings provide critical insights into the textual variations that existed in the early Christian period and offer valuable data for reconstructing the earliest attainable text of the New Testament.

The manuscript’s eclectic nature demonstrates the fluidity and diversity of the textual tradition in the early centuries of Christianity. It reflects the dynamic process of textual transmission, where scribes incorporated readings from different traditions, resulting in a rich and complex textual heritage.

History of Codex Laudianus 35

Origins and Early History

Codex Laudianus 35, a significant Greek-Latin diglot manuscript of the New Testament, was likely written in Sardinia during the Byzantine occupation, a period that began in 534 C.E. This dating establishes the terminus a quo (earliest possible date) for its creation. The manuscript was completed before 716 C.E., as it was utilized by Beda Venerabilis in his work, “Expositio Actuum Apostolorum Retractata.” This provides the terminus ad quem (latest possible date) for its production.

Transfer to England

The manuscript’s journey to England is believed to have occurred in the late 7th or early 8th century. It was possibly brought by Theodore of Tarsus, who became Archbishop of Canterbury in 668, or by Ceolfrid, Abbot of Wearmouth and Jarrow, in the early 8th century. Given its significance, it was likely deposited in one of the prominent monasteries in northern England. These monasteries were known centers of learning and manuscript preservation during this period.

Relocation to the Continent

In the 8th century, English missionaries, known for their evangelistic efforts on the continent, likely brought Codex Laudianus 35 to mainland Europe. It came into the possession of Hornbach Abbey in the Rhineland, a notable monastic center that contributed to the manuscript’s preservation and transmission.

Acquisition by William Laud

During the turmoil of the Thirty Years’ War, Codex Laudianus 35 found its way into the possession of William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1636, Laud donated the manuscript to the Bodleian Library at Oxford University, where it remains today, cataloged as MS. Laud Gr. 35. Laud’s acquisition and donation of the manuscript were part of his broader efforts to support academic and theological scholarship in England.

Scholarly Engagement and Transcriptions

The manuscript has been the subject of significant scholarly attention over the centuries. The first transcription of its text was published by Thomas Hearne in 1715. However, this initial transcription was later found to be inaccurate. Improved transcriptions followed, with Hansell producing one in 1864 and the renowned textual critic Constantin von Tischendorf offering another in 1870. Tischendorf’s work, in particular, brought greater precision and attention to the manuscript’s textual details.

Examination by Scholars

Throughout its history, Codex Laudianus 35 has been examined by various notable scholars. Johann Jakob Griesbach, a pioneering figure in New Testament textual criticism, studied the manuscript, as did other scholars such as Ropes, Motzo, Poole, Clark, Lagrange, and Walther. Their examinations and analyses have contributed to a deeper understanding of the manuscript’s textual character and historical context.

Codex Laudianus 35’s journey from Sardinia to England, and then to the continent before finally residing in the Bodleian Library, illustrates its remarkable historical and scholarly significance. Its preservation through centuries of religious and academic transitions underscores its value as a witness to the early textual history of the New Testament, particularly the Acts of the Apostles. The manuscript’s textual characteristics and the scholarly efforts to study and transcribe it have provided invaluable insights into the development and transmission of the New Testament text.

Text Types of the Codex Laudianus 35: Western, Byzantine, and Alexandrian

Understanding the textual types of the Codex Laudianus 35 is important for textual criticism. These textual types, or text families, represent distinct traditions of textual transmission and variation. The three primary text types are the Western, Byzantine, and Alexandrian. Each of these text types has unique characteristics and historical significance that contribute to our understanding of the New Testament’s textual history.

Western Text Type

The Western text type is characterized by its paraphrastic nature. It is known for a tendency to freely change, omit, or insert words, clauses, and even entire sentences. This text type often involves harmonization efforts and the inclusion of traditional or apocryphal material, leading to a narrative that is typically longer than other text types.

Characteristics and Issues:

Paraphrase and Expansion: Western readings exhibit a fondness for paraphrasing. This includes not only changes and omissions but also additions that may have been motivated by the desire to harmonize accounts or to enrich the narrative.
Harmonization: There is a notable effort to harmonize divergent parallel passages. This means that passages that differ in other text types might be made to agree more closely in Western manuscripts.
Omissions: Despite its general tendency towards expansion, the Western text also contains notable omissions. For example, at the end of Luke and in some other places, Western witnesses omit words and passages found in other text types, including the Alexandrian.
Length of Acts: The Western text of Acts is particularly significant as it is nearly ten percent longer than the form commonly regarded as the original text. This discrepancy raises complex issues in textual criticism.

Scholars have debated the originality of Western readings. At the end of the 19th century, some scholars, including Westcott and Hort, viewed shorter Western readings (termed “Western non-interpolations”) as original. However, the discovery of the Bodmer Papyri has led many modern scholars to reconsider these as aberrant readings rather than original.

Byzantine Text Type

The Byzantine text type is recognized as the latest of the several distinctive text types of the New Testament. It is characterized by its lucidity, completeness, and the practice of conflation.

Characteristics and Distribution:

Lucidity and Completeness: The Byzantine text is marked by clear and complete readings. The framers of this text type sought to smooth out harsh language and to combine divergent readings into a more expanded and harmonized text.
Conflation: This text type often conflates two or more divergent readings into a single, expanded reading. This practice reflects an attempt to preserve as much textual material as possible, sometimes at the expense of fidelity to the original text.
Harmonization: Like the Western text, the Byzantine text harmonizes parallel passages, creating a more consistent narrative.

Corruption and Textual Integrity:

The Byzantine text type is considered corrupt in the sense that it incorporates later additions, alterations, and harmonizations that were not part of the original autographs of the New Testament. These changes include expansions and the smoothing out of textual difficulties, which contribute to its reputation for reliability and readability but compromise its textual integrity.

World-renowned New Testament textual critics, including J. J. Griesbach and Bruce M. Metzger, have described the Byzantine text as containing corrupt readings. Metzger, in particular, has highlighted how the Byzantine text includes readings that reflect later ecclesiastical concerns and harmonizations rather than the original text of the New Testament.

Historical Significance:

The Byzantine text likely originated in Antioch in Syria and was later disseminated from Constantinople throughout the Byzantine Empire. It became the most authoritative and widely circulated text from the 6th or 7th century until the invention of printing in the 15th century. Despite its widespread use and influence, the Byzantine text is generally considered less reliable than the Alexandrian text type, which is regarded as closer to the original New Testament writings.

The Byzantine text is best represented today by later uncial manuscripts and the vast majority of minuscule manuscripts. The Codex Alexandrinus is a notable witness to the Byzantine text in the Gospels. This text type provided the basis for almost all translations of the New Testament into modern languages until the 19th century, further influencing the textual tradition of the Christian Scriptures.

By recognizing the Byzantine text’s characteristics and its status as a corrupt text, scholars and students can better understand the complexities of New Testament textual criticism and the importance of striving for the most accurate reconstruction of the original texts.

Alexandrian Text Type

The Alexandrian text type is considered the most faithful in preserving the original New Testament text. It is characterized by brevity and austerity, often presenting shorter readings and lacking the grammatical and stylistic polishing seen in the Byzantine text.

Characteristics and Importance:

Brevity and Austerity: The Alexandrian text is typically shorter and more concise than other text types. It does not exhibit the same degree of stylistic and grammatical adjustments found in the Byzantine text.
Historical Witnesses: The chief witnesses to the Alexandrian text have traditionally been Codex Vaticanus (B) and Codex Sinaiticus (א), both from the 4th century. These manuscripts are pivotal in New Testament textual criticism due to their age and textual quality.
Early Evidence: The acquisition of the Bodmer Papyri, especially P66 and P75, has pushed the evidence for the Alexandrian text back to the end of the 2nd or beginning of the 3rd century. This early date supports the idea that the Alexandrian text type represents an early and reliable form of the New Testament text.
Influence on Versions: The Sahidic and Bohairic Coptic versions frequently contain typically Alexandrian readings, indicating the widespread and early influence of this text type.

The Alexandrian text is generally regarded as the best text due to its early origin and faithful transmission. It provides a critical foundation for modern critical editions of the New Testament.

Conclusion

The Western, Byzantine, and Alexandrian text types each offer unique insights into the textual history of the New Testament. The Western text’s paraphrastic and expansive nature, the Byzantine text’s clarity and completeness through conflation, and the Alexandrian text’s brevity and fidelity to the original all contribute to a fuller understanding of the New Testament’s transmission and development. These text types collectively enable scholars to reconstruct the most accurate form of the New Testament text and appreciate the rich diversity within early Christian manuscript traditions.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).