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The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Inspiration: The Beginning of the Transmission Process

Explore “The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration” to understand the remarkable journey of the New Testament text. Learn about textual criticism, the role of early scribes, the impact of textual variants, and the dedicated work of scholars in preserving the Word of God. Uncover the resilience of the Scriptures amidst challenges over centuries.

The transmission of the New Testament began with the inspiration of its authors. These men were “carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Peter 1:21 ESV) to record the teachings, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. From the apostle Paul’s letters to churches and individuals to the Gospel accounts by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, each word in the original autographs of the New Testament was divinely inspired.

This was the initial stage of transmission, with the God-breathed words penned onto papyrus, setting the foundation for a process that would span centuries and culminate in the Bibles we hold today. The integrity of this divine inspiration is at the heart of the absolute inerrancy of Scripture, and the commitment to maintaining this integrity guided each stage of transmission.

These original autographs were most likely written on papyrus due to its widespread availability and relative affordability in the first century CE. The writings were copied and disseminated throughout the early Christian communities, spreading the teachings of Christ and the apostles far and wide.

Unfortunately, the original autographs have not survived due to the perishable nature of papyrus and the passage of time. What we have are copies of copies that were made by scribes over the centuries. The earliest copies of the New Testament we possess date back to the 2nd century CE. Yes, mere decades from the originals

The scribes who copied the texts took immense care in their work, striving to preserve the words of Scripture faithfully. We know this because of their love for the Word of God. Initially, the copying would have been done by those in the church or those hired by the church. However, given the manual nature of copying and the human propensity for error, variations inevitably occurred in the manuscripts.

Corruption: The Challenges of Manuscript Copying

While the original autographs were without error, the process of copying these texts by hand over approximately 1,500 years inevitably introduced variations into the manuscripts. We now have over 5,898 Greek New Testament manuscripts with an estimated 400,000 accidental and intentional variants.

Accidental variants were often the result of human error, such as misspellings, repetition, or omission of words, phrases, or even entire lines. Although generally made with good intentions, intentional changes could involve attempts to clarify or harmonize passages, correct perceived errors, or adapt the text to local liturgical practices.

Accidental errors might include haplography (writing once what should have been written twice), dittography (writing twice what should have been written once), homoeoteleuton (skipping from one word to a similar word later in the text), and homoeoarcton (skipping from one word to a similar word earlier in the text). Other common errors included spelling and grammatical mistakes or confusion of similar-looking letters.

Intentional alterations were typically well-meaning attempts to improve the text by correcting perceived errors, resolving apparent contradictions, clarifying meanings, or harmonizing parallel passages. These alterations often reflect the copyist’s interpretation of the text, the theological controversies of their time, or the liturgical practices of their community.

However, these variants should not cause alarm. Most of them are minor and do not affect the overall message or doctrine of the New Testament. They constitute a small fraction of the entire text, while the overwhelming agreement among the manuscripts (85-85%) bears witness to the accuracy and reliability of the New Testament text as a whole.

The handwriting of the scribes also varied, reflecting their different backgrounds and levels of skill. Some scribes displayed a documentary hand, often uneven and unsophisticated, indicating their familiarity with writing business documents or minor official records. Others demonstrated a reformed documentary hand, which showed a greater level of care and uniformity as they were aware that they were copying a literary work rather than a mere document.

Some manuscripts were clearly the work of professional scribes, exhibiting a highly skilled bookhand. These manuscripts, such as P4+64+67 and P75, showcase well-crafted calligraphy, paragraph markings, double columns, and punctuation.

The quality and precision of these copies often depended on the scribe’s skill. Manuscripts can exhibit different handwriting styles, indicating the diversity of scribes involved in their copying:

The Common Hand: Sometimes, it can be tough to differentiate a badly made “documentary” handwriting from a regular one. However, typically, common handwriting shows the effort of someone with limited Greek-writing skills.

The Documentary Hand: These scribes were often accustomed to writing documents, such as business records or minor official documents. Their work is characterized by non-uniform lettering, with the initial letter on each line often larger than the rest. The lines of letters may not be even.

The Reformed Documentary Hand: This term refers to scribes who were aware they were copying a literary work rather than a mere document. Their work often exhibits more care and a slightly higher degree of uniformity than the basic documentary hand.

Professional Bookhand: Some manuscripts were clearly copied by professional scribes skilled in producing literary texts. An example is the Gospel codex known as P4+64+67, which showcases well-crafted calligraphy, paragraph markings, double columns, and punctuation.

Among the earliest papyri (from 100-325 CE), the following are considered to have been created by professional copyists:

P4, P64, P67: These are fragments of the same codex, containing parts of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. The handwriting is professional, and it dates to the late second century (150-175 CE).
P75 (Bodmer XIV-XV): This papyrus contains most of Luke and John and is regarded as an example of careful, professional copying. Its date is around the late second or early third century (175-225 CE).
P46: It’s one of the oldest existing New Testament manuscripts in Greek, dated between 125–150 CE. It contains the last eight chapters of Romans; all of Hebrews; virtually all of 1–2 Corinthians; all of Ephesians, Galatians, Philippians, Colossians; and two chapters of 1 Thessalonians. Comfort recognizes the professionalism in its copying, even though it shows corrections by several different correctors.
P66 (Bodmer II): Dated around 125-150 CE, this papyrus contains a near-complete Gospel of John and is believed to exhibit a professional script.

Remember, these assessments are based on detailed analyses of these manuscripts’ handwriting, layout, and other features.

Despite the presence of these variants, it is crucial to remember that the vast majority are minor and do not impact the overall message or doctrines of the New Testament. They represent a small fraction of the entire text; the remaining agreement is testimony to the meticulous care taken in the copying process.

Restoration: Unraveling the Original Text

Over the centuries, as more and more manuscripts were discovered, textual scholars embarked on a meticulous journey of restoring the New Testament text to its original wording. This restoration period was characterized by the dedicated work of numerous individuals and teams, each contributing significantly to the field of textual criticism.

Griesbach’s Systematic Approach to Textual Criticism

Johann Jakob Griesbach (1745-1812) was a German biblical scholar and textual critic who left an enduring mark on the field of New Testament studies. Born in 1745, he was an academic prodigy who completed his studies at the University of Tübingen at the tender age of 17. His professional career began in Frankfurt, but he soon returned to academia and spent most of his career as a professor at the University of Jena.

Griesbach made significant strides in the realm of New Testament textual criticism, and he is primarily recognized for two key contributions: his systematic approach to textual criticism and the development of specific principles for determining the most probable original reading of the biblical text.

One of the greatest contributions of Griesbach to New Testament studies was his methodological rigor in handling the biblical texts. Prior to Griesbach, New Testament textual criticism was often haphazard and lacked a systematic approach. Griesbach, however, sought to categorize the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament into “families” or “recensions” based on their shared characteristics and variations.

Griesbach identified three main text types: the Alexandrian, the Western, and the Byzantine. This concept of textual “families” was a significant development, allowing scholars to evaluate the textual evidence in a more organized and holistic way. This classification has been refined in modern times but remains foundational to textual criticism.

Principles for Determining the Original Reading

Griesbach was also instrumental in developing principles to determine the most probable original reading when faced with variant readings in the manuscript tradition. Some of these principles include:

Lectio difficilior potior: The more difficult reading is preferable. Griesbach reasoned that scribes were more likely to simplify a difficult reading than to make a simple reading more difficult.
Lectio brevior potior: The shorter reading is preferable. Griesbach observed that scribes tended to expand or explain the text, meaning the shorter reading was often closer to the original.
Lectio praestat quae testium auctoritate et consensu nititur: The reading which stands upon the authority and agreement of witnesses is preferable.
Inter discrepantes lectiones, ea potissimum suspecta est, quam menda facilioribus obnoxia est: Among discrepant readings, the one most liable to easy errors is suspect.

While not infallible, these principles, when used in conjunction, offer a framework for discerning the most likely original reading of a text. They remain foundational to the practice of textual criticism today.

Legacy

Griesbach’s work was pioneering in the field of New Testament textual criticism. He made strides toward a more scientific and methodological approach to the text and laid the foundation for future scholars to build upon. His Greek New Testament editions, published between 1774 and 1806, which included his systematic classification and critical apparatus, made him an enduring figure in the field.

Moreover, his groundbreaking principles provided the basis for a systematic approach in assessing variant readings in the New Testament manuscript tradition. His legacy in the field of textual criticism endures, and his methodologies and principles continue to guide modern scholars in their quest for the most accurate understanding of the biblical text.

Abandoning the Textus Receptus

Karl Lachmann (1793-1851)

Karl Lachmann was a German scholar and philologist, born in 1793 in Brunswick, who made remarkable contributions to the field of classical and biblical philology. Originally, Lachmann gained fame as a classicist, establishing critical texts of Latin and Greek authors. However, his meticulous method and innovative approach would be pivotal in revolutionizing the field of New Testament textual criticism.

Before Lachmann, the Textus Receptus held sway as the standard New Testament Greek text. This text, a product of the Reformation period, had been derived primarily from Byzantine manuscripts of the late medieval period. However, Lachmann saw the need to look beyond this accepted standard to earlier manuscripts. He firmly believed that the key to understanding the original text of the New Testament was to go back to the earliest possible evidence.

Thus, Lachmann became the first textual critic to purposefully deviate from the Textus Receptus. His goal was to correct perceived errors in the Textus Receptus and reconstruct the oldest attainable text of the New Testament. This was an ambitious goal and marked a radical departure from the norms of his time.

Lachmann’s Methodology

In striving to construct the oldest attainable text, Lachmann pioneered a new methodology in textual criticism. He collected and analyzed the earliest available Greek manuscripts, translations, and quotations in early Christian writings. He was less interested in the quantity of evidence supporting a particular reading and more focused on its antiquity and geographical spread.

His approach was also characterized by a rigorous application of the principle of ‘lectio difficilior potior’ (the more difficult reading is preferable), as he assumed scribes were more likely to simplify a difficult reading than complicate a simple one. This approach led to a more scientifically rigorous and historically grounded textual criticism.

Legacy and Impact

Lachmann’s groundbreaking work was published in two editions of the Greek New Testament, in 1842 and 1850. These did not gain widespread acceptance in his lifetime, largely because of their significant deviations from the familiar Textus Receptus. However, his method and philosophy had a profound influence on subsequent scholars, such as Tischendorf, Westcott, and Hort.

Lachmann’s commitment to returning to the oldest attainable text set the direction for the field of textual criticism. He moved the discipline away from merely correcting the Textus Receptus towards a more fundamental reconsideration of what the original text of the New Testament might have looked like.

In conclusion, Karl Lachmann was a pivotal figure in New Testament textual criticism. His boldness in challenging the accepted standard and his innovative approach in reconstructing the oldest attainable text laid the groundwork for modern textual criticism, opening up a new pathway in the pursuit of understanding the original New Testament text.

Major Contributions to New Testament Textual Criticism

Constantin von Tischendorf (1815-1874) was a German theologian and biblical scholar born in 1815. He is one of the most significant figures in the field of New Testament textual criticism, renowned for his rigorous pursuit of early biblical manuscripts and his contribution to the discipline’s methodology.

Expeditions and Discoveries

Tischendorf’s scholarly career was marked by numerous expeditions to the East in search of early biblical manuscripts. His methodical approach and dedication to his task led him to numerous significant discoveries, the most notable being the Codex Sinaiticus, an ancient Greek Bible dated to the mid-4th century CE.

In 1844, during his first visit to St. Catherine’s Monastery on the Sinai Peninsula, Tischendorf discovered a portion of the Old Testament in Greek, which he took back to Germany and named the ‘Codex Sinaiticus’. Ten years later, he returned to the monastery and uncovered the rest of the Codex, a complete Bible that is now recognized as one of the most important biblical manuscripts in existence.

Tischendorf’s discovery of Codex Sinaiticus was not his only contribution to biblical scholarship. He also discovered the Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, a 5th-century Greek manuscript of the Bible that had been overwritten with later texts, and the Codex Amiatinus, the earliest complete Latin Vulgate Bible.

Contribution to New Testament Textual Criticism

Tischendorf’s real importance to New Testament studies lies in his work in textual criticism. He made it his life’s mission to trace the text of the New Testament back to its earliest possible form by identifying and examining its oldest manuscripts. This pursuit led him to a radical departure from the Textus Receptus, the dominant Greek text of the New Testament since the Reformation, and laid the groundwork for modern textual criticism.

He spent his entire scholarly career editing biblical texts, culminating in the monumental “Editio Octava Critica Maior,” an edition of the Greek New Testament that collected and critically evaluated the variant readings of the text from an unprecedented range of sources, including manuscripts, early translations, and citations in the Church Fathers. This edition, published between 1869 and 1872, remains a seminal work in the field.

Tischendorf’s approach was characterized by meticulous attention to detail and a scientific approach to evaluating evidence. He set high standards for textual scholarship that continue to influence the discipline today.

Legacy

Constantin von Tischendorf’s legacy in New Testament textual criticism is indelible. His adventurous expeditions in search of early biblical manuscripts transformed our understanding of the New Testament’s textual history, and his rigorous methodological approach helped elevate the discipline of textual criticism to a new level of scientific rigor.

His discoveries, particularly Codex Sinaiticus, have been crucial to modern scholars in their efforts to reconstruct the earliest attainable text of the New Testament. Today, Tischendorf is celebrated as one of the pioneering figures of New Testament textual criticism. His life and work serve as an enduring testament to the importance of rigorous scholarship in the pursuit of understanding the Bible’s original text.

Brooke Foss Westcott (1825-1901) and Fenton John Anthony Hort (1828-1892)

Brooke Foss Westcott (1825-1901) and Fenton John Anthony Hort (1828-1892) produced a Greek New Testament that was groundbreaking in its reliance on the earliest manuscripts, notably Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus.

Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort were two eminent Victorian scholars, both Anglican bishops and professors at Cambridge University, who left an indelible mark on New Testament textual criticism. They were close friends and collaborators for over 30 years, and their shared passion for textual scholarship culminated in the creation of a Greek New Testament that revolutionized the field.

The Westcott-Hort Greek New Testament

Their groundbreaking work, known as the Westcott-Hort Greek New Testament, was published in 1881 after nearly three decades of meticulous labor. Their aim was not simply to revise the Textus Receptus, the widely accepted Greek text at the time, but to reconstruct the original text of the New Testament to the best of their ability using the most ancient and reliable manuscript evidence available.

Westcott and Hort had a distinctly different approach compared to their predecessors. Rather than accepting the Majority Text, they argued for the superiority of the earliest manuscripts, particularly Codex Vaticanus (B) and Codex Sinaiticus (א), both dating from the fourth century CE.

They believed that these two codices preserved a purer form of the New Testament text, closer to the original autographs. This “Neutral Text,” as they termed it, was thought to have avoided many of the corruptions that had crept into later manuscripts.

This view broke with the prevailing tradition of favoring the Textus Receptus, which was based on the Byzantine text type, representing the majority of manuscripts but from a later period. While the Byzantine text type was widely disseminated and had the weight of numbers, Westcott and Hort argued that its uniformity was the result of deliberate standardization and revision, not the preservation of the original text.

Their method of textual criticism was heavily rooted in an analysis of text types and a careful evaluation of both external (manuscript) evidence and internal considerations (such as the style and vocabulary of the author). They developed various principles to guide their work, such as the idea that “the shorter reading is to be preferred,” and “the more difficult reading is to be preferred,” which are still foundational in textual criticism today.

Legacy

The Westcott-Hort Greek New Testament met with both praise and criticism. Supporters hailed the innovation and the use of the oldest available manuscripts, while detractors felt they had given too much weight to Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus at the expense of the majority of texts.

Nonetheless, their work was deeply influential. It was used as the base text for the English Revised Version (ERV) of the Bible and has had a profound influence on almost every modern Bible translation since. Many subsequent editions of the Greek New Testament, such as the Nestle-Aland and the United Bible Societies’ editions, owe a great debt to Westcott and Hort’s pioneering efforts.

Today, Westcott and Hort are recognized as giants in the field of textual criticism. Their commitment to utilizing the earliest available evidence and their methodological advancements significantly shaped the discipline. Despite various critiques and the evolution of the field, their Greek New Testament continues to be a seminal reference in New Testament scholarship.

Papyrus (P75) Vindicates Westcott and Hort

The discovery of Papyrus 75 (P75), which dates back to around 175-225 CE, significantly influenced the field of New Testament textual criticism and notably vindicated the work of Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort.

Westcott and Hort had advocated for the superiority of the earliest manuscripts, particularly Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, both from the fourth century CE, as representing the most accurate text of the New Testament. This was a substantial departure from the then-standard Textus Receptus and the Byzantine text type, based primarily on later manuscripts.

However, when P75 was discovered in the mid-20th century, the striking similarities between its text and that of Codex Vaticanus were immediately recognized. The text of P75, especially in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John, matches Codex Vaticanus with an extremely high degree of agreement, often in small details and peculiar readings.

This discovery served to vindicate Westcott and Hort’s preference for Vaticanus as preserving an older form of the New Testament text. It supported their theory that the text found in Vaticanus and Sinaiticus, which they termed the “Neutral Text,” was closer to the original text of the New Testament.

The similarity between P75 and Vaticanus is so strong that some scholars initially hypothesized that P75 itself or a very similar manuscript must have been used in creating Vaticanus. However, this theory has been largely set aside due to the time gap between P75 and Vaticanus and the lack of direct evidence.

The current consensus is that both P75 and Vaticanus are descended from a common ancestor — a very early exemplar of the New Testament text. This would suggest that the text type represented by Vaticanus was not a fourth-century innovation but had a much earlier pedigree, reaching back towards the time of the New Testament’s original composition.

This connection between P75 and Vaticanus significantly bolstered the case for the critical approach of Westcott and Hort, affirming the value of their focus on the earliest manuscript evidence and their preference for Codex Vaticanus. While controversial in its time, their work was shown to have been on the right track, enhancing their legacy in the field of New Testament textual criticism.

The Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament

Eberhard Nestle (1851–1913) was a renowned German biblical scholar and textual critic, particularly known for his work on the text of the New Testament. He was born in Stuttgart, the son of the Obertribunalprokurator Christian Gottlieb Nestle and his wife Sophie Beate Kleinmann. He had a half-brother from his father’s second marriage, the classical philologist Wilhelm Nestle.

Nestle pursued his studies at the University of Tübingen from 1869 to 1874, completing a doctoral thesis on the Hebrew and Greek text forms of the Book of Ezekiel. Afterward, he delved into Orientalism, producing notable works like a Syriac grammar. However, he found his lifelong passion in the textual criticism of the New Testament.

Between 1898 and 1912, Nestle served as a professor at the Evangelical Seminaries of Maulbronn and Blaubeuren. He married Klara Kommerell in 1880, and they had one son, Erwin Nestle. After Klara’s premature death in 1887, Nestle remarried in 1890 to Elisabeth Aichele, and they had five daughters and one son together.

Nestle’s legacy in New Testament studies lies largely in his Greek New Testament, first published in 1898. This edition was a significant advancement in textual criticism as it combined the editions of Constantin von Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort, and Richard Francis Weymouth. It reduced the bias toward particular manuscripts and was ultimately adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society, replacing the Textus Receptus.

Erwin Nestle (1883–1972), Eberhard Nestle’s son, continued his father’s work in New Testament textual criticism. After Eberhard’s death, Erwin took over the publication of the Nestle Greek New Testament and contributed significantly to its continual improvement.

Erwin Nestle enhanced the critical apparatus of the edition, maintaining its reputation as a scholarly standard. He kept his father’s vision alive, emphasizing a balanced approach in the face of diverse manuscript evidence.

From the 21st edition in 1952, the work became a cooperative venture with Kurt and Barbara Aland, leading scholars at the time. Under this collaborative effort, the work further evolved into what is now known as the “Nestle-Aland” text, currently in its 28th edition as of 2012. The Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament has become a standard critical text for scholars worldwide, attesting to the enduring contributions of Eberhard and Erwin Nestle to the field of New Testament studies.

Kurt Aland (1915-1994) and Barbara Aland continued the work of Westcott and Hort by establishing the Institute for New Testament Textual Research in Münster, Germany. Their ongoing compilation of Greek manuscripts into the “Nestle-Aland” edition of the Greek New Testament is a standard resource in the field.

Bruce M. Metzger (1914-2007) also contributed significantly to textual criticism. His work in the development and revision of the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament and his numerous publications in the field have guided countless scholars in their study of the New Testament text.

The process of textual criticism, in which scholars compare the variants in the manuscripts to determine the most likely original readings, is a significant part of the New Testament’s transmission history. This process began in earnest during the Renaissance and Reformation periods and continues to this day.

Many eminent scholars have contributed to this work. For example, Johann Jakob Griesbach developed the earliest systematic approach to New Testament textual criticism. His efforts paved the way for future scholars such as Karl Lachmann, who aimed to reconstruct the oldest attainable text, and Constantin von Tischendorf, who discovered the Codex Sinaiticus.

In the late 19th century, Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort produced a Greek New Testament based primarily on the earliest manuscripts, notably Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus. Their text and principles of textual criticism continue to influence New Testament scholarship to this day.

The 20th century saw the contributions of scholars such as Kurt and Barbara Aland, who established the Institute for New Testament Textual Research and compiled the Nestle-Aland edition of the Greek New Testament. Bruce M. Metzger also played a vital role in the development and revision of the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament.

These scholars, among others, have dedicated their lives to restoring the text of the New Testament. Their careful analysis of the manuscripts, collation of variants, and discerning application of textual criticism principles have aided in refining our modern translations and confirming the reliability of the text.

The process of transmission, corruption, and restoration underscores the remarkable journey of the New Testament text from its divine inspiration to the printed Bibles we hold today. The integrity of the process reaffirms our faith in the absolute truth and inerrancy of Scripture and encourages us to treasure and engage deeply with God’s Word.

In conclusion, the text of the New Testament has undergone a lengthy journey from its original inspiration to the printed Bibles we hold today. Despite the challenges of corruption and the passage of time, dedicated scholars have striven to restore the text to its original wording, ensuring that we can continue to trust in the reliability and inerrancy of God’s Word.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).