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The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

**EDWARD D. ANDREWS** (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 200+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).

In the ancient biblical world, bowing was a common act of respect and honor. It was used both as a greeting and an act of worship, but the way in which it was performed and the intention behind it differentiated the two.

In terms of greeting, the Hebrew word used for bowing is “shachah,” which means “to bow down.” It is used to describe bowing as a sign of respect, such as when Abraham bowed down to the three visitors in Genesis 18:2. It is also used to describe bowing as a form of submission or supplication, such as when Jacob bowed down to Esau in Genesis 33:3.

In the New Testament, the Greek word used for bowing as a greeting is “proskuneo,” which means “to kiss the hand toward.” It is used to describe the act of bowing down before someone in recognition of their authority or status. For example, in Matthew 18:26, the servant bows down before his master and begs for mercy.

However, when bowing is used as an act of worship, the intention is different. In this case, the Hebrew word used is “avodah,” which means “to serve or worship.” It is used to describe bowing down before God in reverence and awe, such as in Psalm 95:6: “Come, let us bow down in worship, let us kneel before the Lord our Maker.”

In the New Testament, the Greek word used for bowing as an act of worship is also “proskuneo,” but the intention is different. When used in a worship context, proskuneo describes the act of bowing down before God in worship and adoration. For example, in Revelation 4:10, the twenty-four elders fall down before God and worship Him.

In both cases, the physical act of bowing was similar, but the intention behind it differentiated the two. Bowing as a greeting was a sign of respect or submission while bowing as an act of worship was an expression of reverence and devotion to God.

The practice of turning toward Jerusalem during worship is a tradition that dates back to biblical times. According to Jewish tradition, the city of Jerusalem is the spiritual center of the world, and the Temple Mount, the site of the Holy Temple, is the holiest place on earth. Therefore, when Jews pray, they face Jerusalem, specifically the location of the Holy of Holies in the Temple, which was believed to be the dwelling place of God’s presence.

In the book of Kings, Solomon prays that God would hear the prayers of those who turn toward the temple in Jerusalem, acknowledging it as the place where God’s name dwells. Similarly, in Daniel, we see that Daniel, even when in exile in Babylon, would pray facing Jerusalem as a sign of his faith and devotion to God.

In Ezekiel’s vision, he saw men who had turned their backs on the temple and were bowing down to worship the sun, a clear act of idolatry that was condemned by Jehovah. This vision illustrates the contrast between true worship of God and false worship of idols.

The fact that the temple was built with its entrance facing east was a deliberate choice, reflecting the worship of Jehovah, who is the God of the sunrise, rather than the worship of the sun, which was practiced by other cultures in the ancient world. Therefore, by turning their backs to the rising sun and facing the temple, the worshipers of Jehovah were demonstrating their allegiance to the true God and their rejection of false gods and idols.

In Summary

The various Hebrew and Greek words are used to denote the act of worship and how the context determines their meaning. One of the Hebrew words for worship is “avodah,” which means to serve or worship. It signifies obedience to all of God’s commands and exclusive devotion to Him, rather than any other gods.

The Hebrew term “hish·ta·chawah” means to bow down and do obeisance. It can be used as a sign of respect or worship, indicating reverence and gratitude to God and submission to His will. This word is sometimes associated with sacrifice and prayer, indicating that bowing down was common when offering sacrifices or praying.

The Greek word “latreuʹo” and “latreiʹa” convey the idea of rendering sacred service, rather than just an ordinary service. These words are used to describe the kind of service that is given to God, rather than any other entity.

The Greek term “pro·sky·neʹo” is used in connection with obeisance and worship. It is used to describe the act of bowing down as a sign of respect as well as worship. This word is linked with service, as those who worship “the wild beast” are identified as supporters of Satan.

Other Greek words associated with worship include “eu·se·beʹo,” which means to give godly devotion to or venerate, “thre·skeuʹo,” which refers to a form of worship, and “seʹbo·mai,” which means to revere, venerate or worship. These words are used to describe the act of worship or reverence towards God or other objects of devotion.

Overall, the text emphasizes the importance of context in determining the meaning of words used to describe worship. It also emphasizes the importance of exclusive devotion to God, obedience to His commands, and rejection of false gods and idols.

Here are some additional points regarding Hebrew and Greek terms related to worship:

In addition to “avodah,” another Hebrew word for worship is “shachah,” which means to bow down or prostrate oneself. This word is used to describe acts of worship in the Bible, such as when the Israelites worshiped the golden calf in Exodus 32:8. However, it can also be used in non-religious contexts, such as when Joseph’s brothers bow down to him in Genesis 42:6.
The Greek word “proskuneo” is similar to “pro·sky·neʹo” in that it is used to describe the act of bowing down as a sign of respect or worship. However, “proskuneo” is also used to describe acts of homage or respect shown to people of high status, such as when the woman with the issue of blood falls down before Jesus in Mark 5:33.
The Greek word “leitourgeo” is used to describe acts of worship in the New Testament, particularly in the book of Hebrews. This word has connotations of public service or ministry, and it is used to describe the work of priests and Levites in the temple. In Hebrews 8:2-3, Jesus is described as a high priest who serves in the true tabernacle in heaven.
Another Greek word related to worship is “proskartereo,” which means to continue steadfastly in prayer or worship. This word is used in Acts 2:42 to describe the devotion of the early Christians to the apostles’ teaching, fellowship, breaking of bread, and prayer.
Finally, it’s worth noting that the act of worship is not limited to physical actions such as bowing down or offering sacrifices. In the New Testament, the Greek word “logikos” is used to describe the kind of worship that is pleasing to God, which involves offering our bodies as living sacrifices and renewing our minds (Romans 12:1-2). This type of worship involves our entire being and our daily lives rather than just external actions.

Do Images Aid in True Worship?

According to some religious organizations, the use of images is a helpful aid in worship. However, the Scriptures reveal that true worship does not rely on images or idols. Jesus said that God is seeking those who worship Him in spirit and truth. (John 4:23, 24)

In fact, when God gave His law to the Israelites at Mount Sinai, He intentionally did not reveal any likeness of Himself so that they could not make an image and worship it. (Deut. 4:15-23) He specifically commanded them not to make graven images or bow down to them. (Ex. 20:3-5; Lev. 26:1, ASV) While God did command the making of cherubim for the mercy seat, these were always hidden from public view. (Num. 4:5)

The use of images was not authorized in the new Christian church inaugurated by Christ Jesus. Christians were plainly told that images were nothing, and they were warned to keep themselves from idols. (1 Cor. 8:4-6; 10:14; 1 John 5:21)

During the first three centuries of the Christian era, images were unknown to the followers of Christ. They utterly condemned all heathen image-worship and the immoral customs associated with it. The absence of images in their places of worship was a common accusation brought against Christians by their enemies, and this charge was never denied. (Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. XII, page 750)

While some would attribute this fact to circumstances such as fewness of numbers, persecution, and poverty, their complete absence of images proves that it was principle, not circumstances, that governed their worship. In fact, Christians were even accused of being atheists because of the total lack of images in their places of worship.

Therefore, we can conclude that true worship does not rely on images or idols but on worshiping God in spirit and truth. (John 4:23, 24)

The Origin of Image Worship

The use of images in worship has its roots in the worship of creatures, as the apostle Paul tells us: “Although they knew God, they did not glorify him as God or give him thanks. Instead, their thinking became futile and their foolish hearts were darkened. Although they claimed to be wise, they became fools and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images made to look like a mortal human being and birds and animals and reptiles.” (Romans 1:21-23, NIV) Despite being warned by Jehovah God not to engage in such practices, the Israelites repeatedly fell away from the worship of the invisible God to the worship of tangible things, ultimately resulting in their downfall. (Leviticus 26:28, 30; Deuteronomy 7:16; 2 Chronicles 36:15)

What about the image worship practiced by some Christians today? Is it also of pagan origin? Yes, it undoubtedly is. Cardinal Newman, in his work An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, stated that images were among “the things of pagan origin and sanctified by their adoption into the Church,” specifically the Roman Catholic Church. (page 373) The Catholic Encyclopedia acknowledges that the early Christians got their idea of making images and paintings from the statues of pagan gods and heroes, as well as pagan wall paintings. (Vol. VII, pages 666-667)

But this argument in favor of the use of images also acts as a boomerang. The fact that Christians could offer prayers to, bow down to, and kiss the statue of the emperor, and pay elaborate reverence to his empty throne, shows how far they had strayed from pure worship, which is commanded to keep itself unspotted from the world. (James 1:27) Those who could do such things were Christians in name only, and being able to do such things, they would find no objection to bowing down and adoring statues of Jesus, etc.

Some argue that the worship of images is merely relative, different from the worship directed to God, and that the worship is merely directed through the image to the one represented by it, as a visual aid, and that God’s law was not meant to forbid that. However, God commanded the Israelites not only not to serve any images but also not to bow down to them. (Exodus 20:3-5) Therefore, it is important to maintain pure worship and not to engage in the use of images or any other practices of pagan origin.

The use of images as a form of worship is very real to many. According to Du Bois, one of the early Roman Catholic missionaries in India, “the common people indubitably worship the image itself.” (Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, pages 666, 667) Icons were treated with more than merely relative honor but with the same signs given to the emperor’s statues. (Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, page 668) People used images as if they had magical powers, as they do to this day, placing images in the path of natural disasters as if to stop them.

It is unthinkable that an angel or even Peter would accept “relative” worship. (Acts 10:24-26; Revelation 19:10) True worship bows down only to Jehovah God. It directs its prayers only to Him, as commanded by Christ Jesus. (Matthew 6:9) For its aid, God has provided His Word, the Holy Spirit, and His Church. (John 16:13; 2 Timothy 3:15-17) True worship walks by faith, not by sight. (2 Corinthians 5:7)

In summary, images have no place in true worship. Idol worship has been condemned from the beginning of time, and history records that image worship was not a practice of the early Christians. True worship is directed to Jehovah God alone, and He has provided everything needed for true worship. (Psalm 115:4-6, 8)

SOURCES

Here are some book sources that may be helpful in exploring the Hebrew and Greek terms related to worship and the ways in which they are used in the Bible:

The Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (TLOT) and Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (TDNT) are comprehensive resources for studying Hebrew and Greek terms in their respective contexts.
The New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (NIDOTTE) and the New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis (NIDNTTE) provide detailed entries on key Hebrew and Greek words, including those related to worship.
Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words includes entries on Hebrew and Greek words related to worship, as well as their usage in various contexts.
Baker’s Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology provides articles on various biblical themes and concepts, including worship and its related terms.
Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance is a tool for finding every occurrence of a particular Hebrew or Greek word in the Bible, along with its English translation.

These resources can provide additional context and depth to the study of worship in the Bible.