The name Thutmose, derived from the Greek Tuthmosis and Egyptian words meaning ‘Thoth [The moon god] is born,’ belongs to four pharaohs from Egypt’s eighteenth dynasty (1570-1293 B.C.E.). The reign of these pharaohs, spanning the late sixteenth and fifteenth centuries B.C.E., is often called the Thutmoside period. The following list provides an overview of these four kings and significant events from their reigns:

Thutmose I (1524-1518 B.C.E.), a military man not of royal birth, ascended to the throne by marrying the daughter of his predecessor, Amenhotep I. His rule included a significant raid into Syria, where he crossed the Euphrates River and set up a victory stele near Carchemish.

Thutmose II (1518-1504 B.C.E.), son of Thutmose I and husband of Queen Hatshepsut, conducted a minor raid against a group of Bedouins in Palestine during his rule.

Thutmose III (1504-1450 B.C.E.) initially co-ruled Egypt with his stepmother, Queen Hatshepsut, before becoming the sole ruler from 1483 B.C.E. onwards. In the twenty-second year of his reign, he led an Egyptian army to Megiddo, where the prince of the Syrian city of Kadesh had assembled a large army. Thutmose III’s capture of Megiddo in 1482 B.C.E. marked the establishment of the Egyptian Empire in Western Asia. This king led a total of seventeen campaigns in the Levant, reaching the Euphrates River on his eighth campaign. Thutmose III is hailed as the greatest military leader in Egyptian history and his reign brought wealth and prosperity to Egypt through tribute and trade from its empire in Western Asia and Nubia.

Thutmose IV (1419-1386 B.C.E.), son of Amenhotep II (who was, in turn, a son of Thutmose III), solidified Egypt’s diplomatic ties with the North Syrian kingdom of Mitanni by marrying the daughter of the Mitannian king. A stele found in Western Thebes reveals Thutmose II’s claim of having conquered the city of Gezer.

Pharaoh of the Exodus: Identifying Thutmose III

Thutmose III emerges as a central figure in the context of the Exodus narrative, although not explicitly named in the biblical account. His reign marks a period of significant Egyptian influence and expansion, characteristics aligning with the pharaonic opposition faced by the Israelites in their quest for liberation. His death, intricately tied to the Exodus event, underscores the divine judgment over Egypt and its gods, a theme recurrent in the Scriptures.

Chronological Markers and Theological Implications

The biblical and Egyptian calendars offer a nuanced understanding of Thutmose III’s reign and its termination. The date of his demise, as recorded in the biography of Amenemhab and correlated with the Sothic cycle, positions his death around March 17, 1450 B.C.E., proximate to the Passover season (Exodus 12–14). This synchronization is not merely coincidental but serves as a testament to the precision of biblical chronology and the sovereignty of Jehovah over human history.

The death of Thutmose III, juxtaposed with the Passover, amplifies the narrative of divine deliverance. The Exodus event is framed within a broader theological canvas, illustrating Jehovah’s supremacy over Pharaoh, who was revered as a deity within Egyptian culture. The narrative serves as a powerful reminder of Jehovah’s ability to subvert the plans of earthly rulers and assert His will for His people.

Mysteries of the Mummy: Reevaluating Thutmose III

The discovery of a mummy labeled as Thutmose III presents a puzzle for historians and scholars. The discrepancy between the expected age at the time of death and the age estimated through x-ray analysis raises questions about the identity of the mummy. This anomaly could suggest that the body recovered and labeled as Thutmose III may not belong to him, perhaps indicating that his body was never retrieved from the Reed Sea, as suggested by Exodus 14:30.

This possibility opens a theological reflection on the narrative of Exodus, where the pharaoh’s death signifies not just a physical defeat but a spiritual judgement on Egypt’s perceived divine rulership. The absence of Thutmose III’s body, as suggested by some scholars, might symbolize the ultimate futility of opposing Jehovah’s will and the transient nature of human power when confronted with divine authority.

Thutmose III’s Legacy: A Reign of Conquest and Construction

Thutmose III’s military campaigns significantly shaped Egypt’s foreign policy and internal economy. His expeditions into Syro-Palestine are well-documented, showcasing his military prowess and strategic acumen. The wealth accrued from these conquests contributed to Egypt’s prosperity but also to the Israelites’ oppression, as their forced labor was integral to the construction of military bases and store-cities like Pithom and Rameses.

These cities, identified in Exodus 1:11 as “store-cities,” served dual purposes as supply depots for military campaigns and as repositories for the wealth extracted from conquered territories. This expansionist policy under Thutmose III directly impacted the Israelites, exacerbating their condition of servitude and setting the stage for Jehovah’s intervention through Moses.

Interpreting Thutmose III’s Reign through the Biblical Lens

Thutmose III’s era, characterized by military expansion and economic exploitation, inadvertently fulfills the biblical prophecies concerning Egypt’s downfall and Israel’s emancipation. His death in proximity to the Passover epitomizes the climax of Jehovah’s redemptive plan for His people, contrasting divine provision and protection with human ambition and defiance.

This examination of Thutmose III, grounded in historical, chronological, and theological analysis, underscores the enduring truth of Jehovah’s sovereignty. It reaffirms the biblical narrative’s reliability, offering a comprehensive understanding of the Exodus event within the context of ancient Near Eastern history. Through the lens of conservative evangelical scholarship, Thutmose III’s reign is seen not just as a historical epoch but as a pivotal moment in the unfolding of Jehovah’s salvific history.

A Word of Caution

Among Egyptologists, there have been significant discrepancies in determining the dates of Egypt’s dynasties, with variations spanning centuries. This makes it challenging to pinpoint dates for specific periods accurately. Consequently, it’s uncertain who the specific Pharaoh was during the Exodus. Some scholars propose it was Thutmose III, others suggest Amenhotep II or Ramses II, among others. However, each of these propositions lacks substantial evidence, making the foundations for these theories rather unstable.

Thutmose III’s Military Campaigns: Expanding Egypt’s Horizon

Strategic Brilliance and Campaigns

Thutmose III’s military campaigns are renowned for their strategic depth and scope, significantly extending Egypt’s influence into the Near East. Beginning in his 22nd year, these expeditions were aimed not only at subjugating existing foes but also at preemptively thwarting alliances against Egypt. His campaigns stretched from Nubia in the south to the Euphrates River in the north, marking a period of unprecedented expansion for the Egyptian empire.

Thutmose III, known for undertaking at least 16 military campaigns within 20 years, was dubbed “the Napoleon of Egypt” by American Egyptologist James Breasted, in recognition of his territorial conquests and expansionist approach. It is documented that Thutmose III captured 350 cities during his reign, extending his empire from the Euphrates to Nubia through seventeen recorded military campaigns. He was the first Pharaoh after Thutmose I to cross the Euphrates, accomplishing this during his campaign against Mitanni. Records of his campaigns were etched onto the walls of the temple of Amun at Karnak (transcribed in Urkunden IV). He elevated Egypt’s status, transforming it into an international powerhouse by establishing an empire that stretched from the Asian regions of Syria in the North, to Upper Nubia in the South.

Much of what we know about Thutmose “the warrior” comes not only from his military successes but also from his royal scribe and army commander, Thanuny, who documented his conquests and reign. Thutmose III’s expansion of his territories can be attributed to revolutionary advancements in military technology. The Hyksos people introduced advanced weaponry, including horse-drawn chariots, around 1650 B.C.E. As Egypt managed to expel the Hyksos, its people learned to utilize these weapons. Thutmose III faced minimal resistance from neighboring kingdoms, facilitating the easy expansion of his sphere of influence. His army also had the unique ability to transport boats over land.

Hyksos Excursion – Exploring the Hyksos Period: Joseph, Israelites, and Ancient Egypt

The Hyksos period in Egyptian history remains a focal point of debate and discussion among scholars and archaeologists. This era, marked by the rule of foreign kings over Egypt, is often intertwined with biblical narratives, particularly relating to Joseph and the subsequent sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt. Understanding this period requires a careful examination of historical, archaeological, and biblical records.

Historical Background and Scholarly Views

The term “Hyksos” has been subject to various interpretations, suggesting meanings such as “Shepherd Kings” or “Rulers of Foreign Countries.” Scholars have debated their origins, suggesting they could be Indo-Europeans, Hittites, Canaanites, Amorites, or Arabian tribes. The duration of their rule and their dynastic span also vary among scholars, with some assigning them to the Thirteenth to the Seventeenth Dynasties over a 200-year rule, while others limit their reign to the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties, spanning a century and a half or merely a century.

Archaeological Perspectives

The nature of the Hyksos’ arrival and conquest of Egypt is a matter of contention. Some portray it as a rapid invasion using advanced chariotry, while others describe a gradual infiltration by migrating nomads or seminomads. Jacquetta Hawkes, reflecting a more contemporary view, describes the Hyksos not as conquerors but as Semitic groups engaged in trade and peaceful interactions with Egypt before eventually assuming control.

Manetho’s Account and Its Interpretation

Josephus Flavius cites the ancient Egyptian historian Manetho, whose account of the Hyksos connects them with the Israelites, a link that Josephus himself scrutinizes. According to Manetho, the Hyksos entered Egypt, conquered it without a battle, and inflicted significant destruction before eventually being expelled. This narrative, while contested and considered unreliable by some, has fueled speculation about the relationship between the Hyksos and the biblical narrative of the Israelites.

The Biblical Context

The biblical account provides a divine explanation for Joseph’s rise to power and the favorable position of the Israelites in Egypt (Genesis 45:7-9). This divine providence negates the need to attribute Israel’s success in Egypt to the hypothetical rule of sympathetic “Shepherd Kings.” The impact of Joseph’s governance, the economic and social changes during the Israelite sojourn, and the dramatic events of the Exodus are well-documented within the biblical narrative (Genesis 41:39-46; Exodus 1:7-10; 12:2-38).

Propaganda and Historical Memory

The recording of history in ancient Egypt was closely tied to the priesthood, which may have influenced the portrayal of the Hyksos and the Israelites in Egyptian records. It is plausible that subsequent Egyptian narratives, including Manetho’s, were attempts to rationalize the profound impact of the Israelites’ presence and the calamities that befell Egypt, as recounted in the Bible. Such accounts could represent distorted traditions aimed at explaining the undeniable evidence of Israel’s significant effect on Egypt during their stay.

Analysis and Correlation with Biblical Records

Correlating secular history with biblical events presents challenges, particularly regarding the identification of the Hyksos with the Exodus. The discrepancies in chronology and the lack of direct evidence make it difficult to definitively link the expulsion of the Hyksos with the departure of the Israelites. Furthermore, the Semitic origins of the Hyksos and their eventual expulsion from Egypt might reflect a broader context of Semitic movements in the region, rather than a direct correlation with biblical narratives.

In analyzing the Hyksos period and its connection to biblical history, it is essential to consider the complexities of archaeological evidence, the limitations of ancient historical records, and the theological implications of the biblical text. While the exact nature of the Hyksos’ rule and their relationship with the Israelites remain subjects of scholarly debate, the biblical account stands as a testament to the enduring faith and resilience of the Israelite people, guided by divine providence through their sojourn in Egypt.

End of Excursion

Megiddo: The Pinnacle of Military Strategy

The Battle of Megiddo stands as a testament to Thutmose III’s military genius. Chronicled meticulously in the annals of ancient Egypt, this campaign against a coalition of Canaanite kings is often hailed as one of the earliest recorded military triumphs. Thutmose’s decision to attack through a narrow pass, despite the risk and opposition from his generals, resulted in a decisive victory that underscored his tactical foresight and courage. The aftermath of Megiddo was a prolonged siege that eventually led to the city’s surrender, showcasing the effectiveness of Thutmose’s siege warfare tactics.

Administrative Innovations and Tribute System

Following his military successes, Thutmose III implemented a sophisticated system of administration over conquered territories, integrating them into the Egyptian empire through a network of vassal states. This system ensured a steady flow of tribute to Egypt, enriching the empire and financing further military endeavors. The tribute, often recorded in detail on temple walls, included not only gold and silver but also livestock, crops, and slaves, reflecting the economic diversity of the empire’s assets.

Impact on Israelites and Regional Politics

Thutmose III’s campaigns had far-reaching implications for the region, including the lands inhabited by the Israelites. His conquests and the establishment of Egyptian garrisons in Canaan intensified the Egyptian presence in the area, impacting the geopolitical landscape that the Israelites would later navigate. These actions contributed to the strategic importance of cities such as Hazor, which became focal points of conflict in the narrative of the Israelite conquest under Joshua.

Military Innovations and Legacy

Thutmose III is credited with several military innovations, including the use of horse-drawn chariots that gave the Egyptian army a mobility advantage over its enemies. His army’s organization, training, and equipment were superior to those of his adversaries, factors that contributed significantly to his success on the battlefield.

The legacy of Thutmose III’s military campaigns extended beyond his lifetime, influencing subsequent generations of military leaders. His strategies and tactics were studied and admired, setting a standard for ancient warfare. The wealth and power accrued through these campaigns solidified Egypt’s status as a superpower in the ancient world, with Thutmose III’s reign marking the zenith of its imperial glory.

Through his military campaigns, Thutmose III not only expanded the borders of Egypt but also the horizons of military strategy. His reign is a pivotal chapter in the history of ancient warfare, embodying the confluence of ambition, strategy, and empire-building that defines the narrative of the ancient Near East.

Thutmose III’s Architectural Legacy: Monuments of Might and Devotion

Monumental Constructions and Religious Edifices

Thutmose III’s reign is distinguished not only by his military conquests but also by a prolific period of construction that left a lasting mark on Egypt’s architectural landscape. He embarked on an extensive building program, erecting monuments, temples, and obelisks that emphasized his divine kingship and celebrated his victories. This construction campaign was as much an assertion of political power as it was an act of devotion to the gods.

Temple of Karnak: A Testament to Divine Favor

A key focus of Thutmose III’s building projects was the expansion and embellishment of the Temple of Karnak in Thebes. He significantly contributed to its grandeur with the construction of the Sixth Pylon, which served as a monumental gateway to the temple’s inner areas. This was complemented by his creation of a vast hall filled with columns, known as the Festival Hall or Akh-menu, which commemorated his Sed festival, a jubilee celebrating the pharaoh’s reign and divine renewal.

Within the precincts of Karnak, Thutmose III also erected a series of obelisks, majestic stone pillars that symbolized the sun god Ra’s rays. The most famous of these, later transported to Rome, stands today in the Lateran Plaza and remains a testament to Thutmose III’s enduring legacy.

Deir el-Bahri: Innovations in Mortuary Complexes

Thutmose III’s contributions to the architectural landscape of Egypt extended to his mortuary complex at Deir el-Bahri. Nestled in the cliffs opposite Karnak, this complex featured innovative design elements that influenced later constructions. It was part of a comprehensive approach to memorializing the pharaoh, integrating temple, tomb, and treasure in a unified spatial narrative that celebrated Thutmose III’s connection to the divine.

Fortresses and Temples Beyond Thebes

Recognizing the strategic importance of Egypt’s borders and newly conquered territories, Thutmose III also invested in the construction of fortresses and temples beyond Thebes. These structures served dual purposes: they fortified Egypt’s frontiers against potential incursions and acted as centers of Egyptian culture and religion, extending the influence of the pharaoh and the gods of Egypt into distant lands.

In Nubia, Thutmose III’s construction efforts solidified Egypt’s control over the region. Temples dedicated to Egyptian deities dotted the landscape, serving as symbols of the pharaoh’s benevolence and the gods’ favor towards the conquered territories. These edifices not only secured loyalty but also facilitated the integration of Nubian resources into the Egyptian empire.

Legacy in Stone

Thutmose III’s construction and building projects are a vivid narrative of a pharaoh who wielded architectural innovation as skillfully as he commanded armies. His monuments, temples, and fortresses were not merely structures of stone and mortar but were imbued with political, religious, and cultural significance. They served as enduring symbols of his divine right to rule, his military prowess, and his dedication to the gods.

Through these constructions, Thutmose III shaped the physical and spiritual landscape of Egypt, leaving a legacy that would inspire both his successors and the generations that followed. His reign represents a golden age of Egyptian architecture, where the built environment was an integral expression of the pharaoh’s ambition, piety, and power.

Thutmose III and the Erasure of Hatshepsut’s Legacy

A Pharaoh’s Struggle for Legitimacy

Thutmose III’s relationship with Hatshepsut, his stepmother and aunt, who served as co-regent and then as pharaoh during the early years of his reign, is one of the most intriguing chapters of Egyptian history. Following Hatshepsut’s death, Thutmose III began a comprehensive campaign to erase her from the historical and religious narrative of Egypt. This campaign extended beyond mere political rivalry, delving into the realms of divine legitimacy and royal lineage.

Strategic Defacement and Erasure

Thutmose III’s efforts to erase Hatshepsut’s legacy were meticulously executed. Monuments, temples, and inscriptions bearing her name and likeness were either defaced or removed. This systematic removal extended to some of the most significant and visible monuments in Egypt, including those at Karnak, Luxor, and her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri.

In several instances, Hatshepsut’s cartouches and images were chiseled out and replaced with those of Thutmose III or Thutmose II, his father, effectively rewriting the historical record to minimize Hatshepsut’s role and elevate his own. This was not mere vandalism but a calculated attempt to assert his rightful place as the uncontested ruler of Egypt, directly descended from Thutmose II, without the interruption of Hatshepsut’s reign.

Religious Implications and the Cult of Amun

The campaign against Hatshepsut’s monuments also had profound religious implications. By erasing her contributions to the temples of Amun, particularly in Karnak where she had undertaken significant building projects, Thutmose III was able to claim direct divine favor and support for his reign. This move was not just about consolidating political power but also about securing religious legitimacy in the eyes of the priests and the populace.

Long-term Impact on Egyptian Memory

Thutmose III’s actions against Hatshepsut’s monuments had a lasting impact on the historical memory of Egypt. For centuries, Hatshepsut was virtually absent from the historical records, known only through the gaps and absences where her name had been removed. It was not until modern archaeological efforts began to piece together the fragments of her reign that the extent of Thutmose III’s campaign against her became apparent.

Reflections on Power and Legacy

Thutmose III’s defacing of Hatshepsut’s monuments reflects the complexities of power, memory, and legacy in ancient Egypt. It underscores the lengths to which a pharaoh would go to secure his position and legacy, even at the expense of erasing a predecessor’s contributions. This act of historical revision was a bold statement about the nature of power and the construction of history in ancient Egypt, where the written and built environments were as much a part of the political landscape as the natural and human-made boundaries that defined the kingdom.

While Thutmose III’s reign is celebrated for its military conquests and monumental building projects, his campaign against Hatshepsut’s memory reveals the darker undertones of his quest for legitimacy and the enduring impact of his actions on the historical record. Through the lens of modern archaeology and scholarship, we are able to glimpse the complexities of their relationship and the intricate dance of power and memory that played out on the stage of ancient Egypt.

Thutmose III: The End of a Monumental Reign

Demise of a Warrior Pharaoh

Thutmose III, a ruler whose reign was marked by unparalleled military conquests and monumental building projects, met his earthly end in 1458 B.C.E. His demise marked the conclusion of a reign that had significantly shaped the destiny of Egypt, expanding its borders and enhancing its wealth and prestige. The circumstances of his death remain shrouded in the veil of history, with ancient records focusing more on his accomplishments than on the particulars of his passing. However, it is known that he died a natural death, an event that led to the ascension of his son, Amenhotep II, thus ensuring the continuation of the Thutmosid dynasty’s legacy.

Burial in the Valley of the Kings

Thutmose III’s final resting place was in the Valley of the Kings, in a tomb designated as KV34. This tomb, carved deep into the limestone cliffs of the Theban Necropolis, reflects the architectural and artistic advancements of the time. Its layout consists of a series of corridors leading down to a large burial chamber, a design that became a standard for royal burials in the New Kingdom period.

Artistic Innovations in KV34

The walls of KV34 are adorned with some of the most elaborate and detailed decorations found in any royal tomb of the period. These include vivid illustrations from the Amduat, an ancient funerary text that describes the sun god’s journey through the underworld during the night. The paintings in Thutmose III’s tomb are significant for their artistic style, which shows a departure from the rigid formalism of previous eras and moves towards more fluid and dynamic forms of expression. This innovation in artistic representation can be seen as a reflection of Thutmose III’s own impact on Egyptian culture, symbolizing a period of transition and transformation.

The Mummy of Thutmose III

The mummy of Thutmose III was discovered not in his original tomb but in the Deir el-Bahari Cache (DB320), a hidden repository where priests of the 21st Dynasty reburied the mummies of many New Kingdom pharaohs to protect them from tomb robbers. When discovered, his mummy revealed a man of slight build but one who must have possessed considerable endurance, given his extensive military campaigns. The mummy’s condition and the elaborate wrappings that encased it are testaments to the high regard in which Thutmose III was held, even centuries after his death.

Legacy Preserved in Mortality

The death and burial of Thutmose III encapsulate the dual aspects of his legacy: as a warrior king who expanded Egypt’s empire to unprecedented extents and as a pharaoh whose contributions to art, architecture, and religious practices left an indelible mark on the civilization’s cultural heritage. His tomb, with its intricate decorations and the texts that adorn its walls, serves as a lasting memorial not just to Thutmose III but to the era he epitomized—an era of power, prosperity, and artistic flourishing. In death, as in life, Thutmose III continues to fascinate and inspire, a figure whose contributions to Egyptian history are as enduring as the monuments and texts he left behind.

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