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Dive into the compelling history of Christianity. Discover how the clergy class came to be and the power and prestige it commanded. Uncover the roots of division, the rise of alternative movements, and the tragic tales of persecution under the Inquisition. An enlightening read for anyone intrigued by religious history.

A significant shift took place in the early Christian church, transitioning from the universal ministry of all followers of Christ to a centralized system of exclusive priesthood and hierarchy. This development was a noticeable deviation from what Jesus and his apostles had preached (Matthew 5:14-16; Romans 10:13-15; 1 Peter 3:15).

During the first century CE, following Jesus’ death, his apostles and other spiritually mature Christian elders in Jerusalem provided guidance and direction to the Christian church. They operated as a collective group, with no single individual exerting dominance over others, as implied in Galatians 2:9.

In 49 CE, an important meeting was held in Jerusalem to discuss and resolve issues affecting Christians at large. Following open debate, the apostles, the elders, and the whole church agreed to send representatives to Antioch, accompanied by Paul and Barnabas (Acts 15:22, 23). This group of apostles and elders served as a general oversight body for the growing Christian community.

So, what was the local level of oversight in each church? In his letter to Timothy, Paul mentions the roles of overseers (episkopos in Greek, the origin of the term “episcopal”) and elders (presbyteroi), spiritual men deemed capable of teaching fellow Christians (1 Timothy 3:1-7; 5:17). Notably, these leaders didn’t form a separate clergy class in the first-century Christian congregation. They didn’t wear distinct attire; rather, their spirituality set them apart. Each congregation was led by a group of elders, or overseers, rather than a single ruler (Acts 20:17; Philippians 1:1).

However, as the centuries went by, the concept of an episkopos (overseer) evolved into the modern understanding of a “bishop,” a priest holding jurisdiction over other clergy in his diocese. According to the Spanish Jesuit Bernardino Llorca, this transformation didn’t happen overnight. Initially, the terms bishop and presbyter were used interchangeably, with bishop translating to superintendent and presbyter to older man. Gradually, the term bishop began to be used for the more prominent superintendents who held supreme priestly authority.

By the fourth century, bishops began to operate within a monarchical system, and a hierarchical clergy body was formed. Over time, the bishop of Rome, asserting himself as Peter’s successor, was widely accepted as the supreme bishop and pope.

Today, a bishop’s position in various Christian churches is associated with prestige, power, and often a comfortable salary, aligning closely with the ruling elite of each nation. This is a stark contrast to the simplicity of the organizational structure under Christ and the elders or overseers of the early Christian churches. A wide chasm exists between Peter and his so-called successors, who have reigned in the luxurious surroundings of the Vatican (Luke 9:58; 1 Peter 5:1-3).

Papal Power and Prestige

The early church in Rome, like all Christian churches at the time, had elders who provided guidance without any individual asserting dominance. During the first century, none of the initial overseers in the Roman church were recognized as bishops or popes since the concept of a single, authoritative bishop hadn’t emerged yet. It wasn’t until the second century CE that signs of such a structure began to appear (Romans 16:3-16; Philippians 1:1).

The title “pope,” derived from the Greek word papas meaning “father,” wasn’t used until the third century. According to former Jesuit Michael Walsh, the first Bishop of Rome to be called “Pope” was Pope Callistus. By the fifth century, “Pope” was usually reserved for the Bishop of Rome. However, it wasn’t until the eleventh century that a Pope claimed exclusive use of this title (An Illustrated History of the Popes).

Pope Leo I, who held office from 440-461 CE, was among the first Bishops of Rome to assert his authority. He adopted the once-pagan title of Pontifex Maximus, which continues to be used by modern popes. Leo justified his authority by interpreting Jesus’ words in Matthew 16:18-19 to mean that the apostle Peter’s church should be the prime church since Peter was the foremost apostle. Leo thereby asserted his spiritual authority from Rome in the West, parallel to the emperor’s temporal power in the East. His authority was further demonstrated when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 800 CE.

EXCURSION: Peter and the Papacy

The Catholic Church’s claim of papal authority is rooted in Jesus’ words to Peter in Matthew 16:18: “And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church and the powers of death shall not prevail against it.” The Catholic Church interprets this to mean that Jesus built his church on Peter, making him the first in an unbroken line of bishops of Rome, or popes.

However, the identity of the “rock” Jesus referred to—whether it was Peter or Jesus himself—has been a subject of debate. The immediate context of the verse suggests that Jesus was referring to himself as the rock foundation of the church, a notion supported by Peter’s own writings and Paul’s letters (1 Peter 2:4-8; Ephesians 2:20).

Neither the Bible nor historical evidence confirms that Peter was considered superior to his fellow apostles. In fact, when Paul visited Jerusalem, he received support from “James and Cephas [Peter] and John, the ones who seemed to be pillars,” indicating that Peter was one of several pillars in the church (Galatians 2:7-9; Acts 28:16, 30, 31). Furthermore, there is no concrete proof that Peter was ever in Rome.

Was the Apostle Peter In Rome?

END OF EXCURSION

In 1929, the pope of Rome was recognized by secular governments as the ruler of a sovereign state, Vatican City, enabling the Roman Catholic Church to send diplomatic representatives, or nuncios, to world governments (John 18:36). Today, the pope is bestowed with several titles and carried with ceremony, receiving the honors typically given to a head of state. This is in stark contrast to Peter’s humble reaction when Cornelius, a Roman centurion, bowed down to him: “Peter lifted him up, saying: ‘Rise; I myself am also a man.'” (Acts 10:25, 26; Matthew 23:8-12).

So, how did the early church, characterized by simplicity and humility, transform into the pride and pomp of Christendom with so much power and prestige?

Christianity’s Foundation

The transformation of Christianity into a state religion began in 313 CE when Emperor Constantine declared his conversion to the faith. In a crucial battle at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine believed a dream he had instructing him to paint the “Christian” monogram (Chi-Rho, the Greek letters for Christ) on his soldiers’ shields. After winning the battle, he declared himself a Christian and adopted the Chi-Rho as his emblem, a symbol already used by both pagans and Christians.

Despite his conversion, Constantine wasn’t baptized until his deathbed, 24 years later. Nevertheless, his acceptance of Christianity significantly changed the religion’s status. Bishops, previously persecuted, received tax exemptions, gifts, and influence. Christianity went from being an oppressed religion to the official state religion of Rome, forming the foundation of what we now refer to as Christendom.

Constantine, Heresy, and Orthodoxy

Constantine’s conversion was crucial because he held a strong influence over the divided Christian Church. At the time, a fierce debate about the relationship between Jesus, the ‘Son of God’, and ‘God’ himself raged among the Christian bishops. Some argued for the biblically supported viewpoint of Arianism, that Christ was created by God and thus subordinate to him. Others considered this heretical and leaned more towards the concept of Jesus as “God Incarnate.”

In 325 CE, Constantine convened a council at Nicaea with the aim of resolving these doctrinal disputes. However, only a fraction of all bishops attended, most of them from the Greek-speaking region, which created an unrepresentative group. Even so, this council produced the Nicene Creed, which leaned heavily towards Trinitarian thought, positing that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit were three persons in one Godhead. But this didn’t end the debate, especially around the role of the Holy Spirit. Decades of argument and further councils were required to enforce theological conformity.

With the affirmation of Jesus as “God Incarnate,” it wasn’t long before his mother, Mary, was venerated as the “Mother of God.” Over the years, this teaching led to various forms of Mary worship, despite the Bible mentioning her only as Jesus’ biological mother and not ascribing her any significant religious role. Consequently, in the Roman Catholic Church, many devout followers venerate Mary, sometimes even more fervently than they worship God.

Christianity Divided

Apostasy within the Christian Church, contrary to Apostle Paul’s wishes, led to significant division and fragmentation. Despite his exhortations for unity, disputes sprang up in the wake of his departure, with “fierce wolves” arising from within the Christian fold. By the second and fourth centuries CE, multiple variations of Christianity had emerged.

When Constantine established a new capital in what is today Istanbul, a rift grew between the Latin-speaking Western Catholic Church based in Rome, and the Greek-speaking Eastern Church based in Constantinople. Over time, these geographical and linguistic divisions solidified.

Contentious debates around the theology of the Trinity continued to generate discord. At the council held in Chalcedon in 451 CE, disagreements about the “nature” of Christ led to the formation of the Coptic Church in Egypt and Abyssinia, and the “Jacobite” churches of Syria and Armenia. The unity of the Catholic Church was perpetually tested by these theological schisms.

The veneration of images was another divisive issue. The Eastern Church initially rejected such practices in what is known as their iconoclastic (image-destroying) period. They later returned to using religious icons.

The addition of the word “filioque” (“and from the Son”) to the Nicene Creed by the Western Church caused further division. The Eastern Church rejected this change and the Pope’s claim of universal jurisdiction over the Church. In 1054, mutual excommunications resulted in a split leading to the formation of the Eastern Orthodox Churches.

CHURCH HISTORY: The Origin, Persecutions, and Doctrines of the Waldenses

Simultaneously, the Waldensian movement led by Peter Waldo emerged in the 12th century. Advocating for a lifestyle that mirrored the apostles—without personal property—they rejected Catholic practices such as indulgences and purgatory. Despite the Church’s attempts to suppress this movement, it continued to grow.

Persecution of the Albigenses

Another religious movement emerged in the 12th century—the Albigenses or Cathari. They held views contrary to the Catholic Church, denying doctrines like the Trinity, the Virgin Birth, hellfire, and purgatory. Pope Innocent III launched a crusade against them, and in a bloody series of events, the Albigenses were eventually defeated. The Council of Narbonne forbade laymen from owning any part of the Bible, furthering the Church’s control over religious interpretation.

THE WALDENSES: From the Catholic Church to Heresy to Protestantism?

The Church then established the Inquisition, a tribunal designed to suppress heresy. This period of history is notorious for its religious persecution, characterized by torture, executions, and suppression of freedom of religious expression. Those found guilty of heresy were handed over to local authorities, ostensibly freeing the Church of direct responsibility for the executions.

These events cast a shadow over the Church and brought considerable hardship to those seeking to worship freely. It posed the question of whether there would ever be hope for those seeking the true God amidst such suppression.

THE WALDENSES: Unorthodox or Searchers of Truth?

In addition to what’s already been described, it’s also worth noting the role that societal and political factors played in the evolution of the early Christian leadership structure.

When Christianity was still a new and emerging faith, the early Christian communities operated under a variety of leadership models, with a diversity that reflected the different contexts in which these communities were formed. Some Christian communities were relatively egalitarian, with leadership roles being shared among several individuals, while others may have had more hierarchical structures.

Over time, as Christianity grew and spread throughout the Roman Empire, the powers at the time felt the need for a more standardized form of governance became clear. The conversion of the Roman Emperor Constantine to Christianity in the 4th century CE and the subsequent official recognition of Christianity as a legal religion was a significant turning point. This led to an increasing institutionalization and centralization of the Christian church and the development of a formal clergy class.

The shift from a more egalitarian leadership model to a hierarchical one, with a distinct clergy class, is a complex phenomenon that involves not only changes in religious beliefs and practices but also larger societal and political shifts. It’s a subject that scholars continue to study and debate.

Additionally, while the Roman Catholic Church, with its pope, cardinals, and bishops, is perhaps the most recognizable form of hierarchical Christian church governance, it’s important to note that not all Christian denominations follow this model. Many Protestant denominations, for example, have a much less centralized and hierarchical form of governance, with local congregations often enjoying a great deal of autonomy.

Finally, the formation of the clergy class and the accompanying hierarchy has also been a topic of contention within Christianity. Some Christian groups argue for a return to the perceived egalitarianism of the early church, while others defend the need for a distinct clergy class and a hierarchical structure. These debates are part of the ongoing evolution and diversity of Christian thought and practice.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).