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Questions regarding the infallibility of the Roman Catholic pope have circulated for centuries. The official dogma of papal infallibility holds that when a pope, acting in his capacity as the supreme shepherd over the universal church, declares a doctrine related to faith or morals, his pronouncement is free from error and binding on all believers. Promoted most notably at the Vatican Council of 1870 C.E., this teaching asserts that the pope’s authority transcends generations and cannot be revoked. Proponents connect it to claims that Jesus established Peter as the rock upon which the church stands. Opponents respond that there is no explicit scriptural evidence for assigning any human a status free from doctrinal error. A closer look at the Bible and at historical records can clarify whether God’s word supports these claims.

Biblical Considerations on Authority and Error

Passages of the New Testament emphasize that all humans, aside from Jesus, are imperfect. Romans 3:23 affirms, “All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.” The apostle Paul regularly warns believers to test teachings against the Scriptures, admonishing in Galatians 1:8 that even if an angel preached a contrary gospel, it should be rejected. This stance appears to leave no room for a single human voice to claim an infallible pronouncement on doctrinal issues. Instead, 2 Timothy 3:16 states, “All Scripture is breathed out by God,” highlighting the word of God as the genuine source of truth.

Papal infallibility often is linked to Matthew 16:18, where Jesus addresses Peter: “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my congregation.” Those who defend the pope’s special authority interpret “rock” as Peter himself. Yet many conservative scholars note that Peter’s name (Petros) differs from the feminine form (petra) that Jesus used for “rock,” suggesting that Jesus was referring to the truth of Peter’s confession—namely, that Jesus is the Messiah—rather than exalting Peter as an unerring leader. Indeed, the same Peter was publicly corrected by Paul in Galatians 2:11-14 over an inconsistent stance on associating with Gentile believers. This correction shows that even an apostle could act in error on spiritual matters.

Historical Claims and the 1870 Proclamation

The formal declaration of papal infallibility as dogma came at the First Vatican Council in 1870 C.E. Strong opposition arose from a number of bishops, including Joseph Georg Strossmayer of Croatia, who delivered an address challenging the idea. He argued that the New Testament nowhere mentions a pope as the universal head of the church or the vicar of Christ. He also pointed out that the apostles, including Peter, were repeatedly warned by Jesus not to seek lordship over others (Luke 22:24-27). The biblical emphasis consistently rests on Christ as the head (Ephesians 5:23), rather than on any single human occupying a supreme and infallible office.

Strossmayer observed that Paul, John, James, and Luke never endorsed a notion of papal supremacy or freedom from error. He reasoned that if Peter had indeed enjoyed such status, the earliest Christian writings would have underscored it, especially since Peter’s letters survive in the New Testament. Instead, Peter himself calls Jesus “the chief Shepherd” (1 Peter 5:4). The bishop’s speech challenged fellow council members to weigh the historical record, which indicates that if any bishop presumed to be “universal,” earlier writers such as Gregory I deemed such a title to be misguided.

Examples of Papal Fallibility Through History

Proponents of papal infallibility claim that a true ex cathedra pronouncement cannot err. Skeptics point to numerous instances where popes disagreed with or reversed each other’s stances. The historical record also reveals popes who promoted or tolerated error. Marcellinus, active around 296-303 C.E., offered incense in a pagan temple. Liberius (fourth century C.E.) endorsed Arian beliefs—contradicting the teaching of Christ’s full nature—under political pressure. Pope Honorius I (seventh century C.E.) supported Monothelitism, which the church later condemned.

Even more striking are cases where popes took opposing positions on moral or disciplinary matters, sometimes in close succession. One would approve a practice, and a subsequent pope would condemn it. A prominent instance involves Pope Sixtus V, who advocated reading a particular version of the Bible, only for Pius VII to restrict such readings later. These contradictions do not merely reflect minor administrative changes but bear on doctrine and moral teaching, the very realms that the dogma of infallibility claims to keep free from error.

Beyond doctrinal inconsistencies, medieval and Renaissance popes at times exhibited grievous behaviors. Historians have documented moral failings, nepotism, and even violence in the papal ranks. Benedict IX, for example, gained infamy for corruption, while Alexander VI fathered multiple children and engaged in the politics of intrigue. If each pope’s formal pronouncements are to be deemed unerring, such moral and doctrinal missteps create dissonance with the ideal of a man uniquely guided in every crucial utterance.

Does Papal Infallibility Derive from Peter’s Office?

Roman Catholic tradition holds that Peter served as the first bishop of Rome, thereby conferring a lineage that made later bishops heirs to his apostolic authority. Yet the only New Testament documents written by Peter do not hint that he was the supreme head of the entire church. Instead, 1 Peter 5:1 describes him as a “fellow elder,” a term that implies collaboration among equals. When the apostle James presided over a major assembly in Jerusalem (Acts 15), Peter contributed his voice, but James announced the concluding decision, indicating no single apostle held absolute supremacy.

Furthermore, the apostle Paul’s commission to the Gentiles (Galatians 2:7-9) meant that leadership within the early congregations was not centralized under one figure’s ex cathedra rulings. The New Testament consistently stresses that Christ alone is “head of the congregation” (Ephesians 5:23). Although the earliest Christians recognized the need for organizational structure, the idea of a singular human’s infallible pronouncements finds no direct biblical confirmation. The epistles do not portray a supreme pontiff whose official teaching cannot be questioned.

Assessing 1 Corinthians 15:50 and the Body of Mary

In 1950 C.E., Pope Pius XII declared that Mary’s entire body went to heaven upon the close of her earthly life. This statement exemplifies the claim that a pope can speak infallibly on a matter of faith. However, 1 Corinthians 15:50 affirms, “Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable.” Critics note that this verse poses a significant challenge to the assertion that Mary’s fleshly body ascended. While some might argue for a miraculous exception, there is no direct biblical passage teaching that Mary escaped death or bypassed the resurrection process common to all believers. Consequently, the dogma about Mary, taught ex cathedra, sparks questions about whether the text of Scripture supports such a claim. Rather than seeing a rare exception, Paul’s words convey a universal principle.

Weighing Tradition Versus Biblical Foundation

Many who hold to papal infallibility appeal to church tradition, early councils, and subsequent developments. They argue that the church’s authority, anchored in the person of Peter, gives the pope the right to pronounce doctrine in God’s name. However, Jesus consistently uplifted the supreme authority of the Scriptures. In John 17:17, he prayed, “Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth.” Paul likewise encouraged examining teachings by the inspired writings (Acts 17:11). When any human pronouncement—even from a bishop—lacks firm biblical grounding, it merits careful reexamination.

Even Catholic sources acknowledge that aspects of papal authority grew over centuries, not in the immediate apostolic period. Bishop Strossmayer’s reminders regarding the earliest church fathers and biblical texts highlight that references to a universal bishop do not appear until later developments in ecclesiastical history. Such expansions in hierarchical power often came amidst political pressures or desires to unify the church under one strong figure. The question arises whether these human traditions override the simplicity and clarity of New Testament teachings.

Conclusion

The doctrine of papal infallibility stands in tension with both biblical statements and factual historical records. Scripture reveals that all humans, including prominent leaders, can err. The apostle Peter, viewed by many as the first pope, was openly rebuked by Paul for a doctrinal inconsistency regarding Gentile fellowship (Galatians 2:11-14). Historical research demonstrates that popes have issued contradictory decrees and even embraced false teachings under duress or personal ambition. Although the Roman Catholic system invests ultimate authority in the bishop of Rome, a neutral reading of the New Testament indicates that Christ, not a single human figure, remains the head of the congregation. The standard by which one discerns truth, according to passages like 2 Timothy 3:16 and Acts 17:11, is the inspired Scripture.

Those who proclaim the complete infallibility of a human authority confront the biblical principle that “God’s word is truth” (John 17:17), while “the word of man” stands on a lesser foundation. If a decree attributed to a pope contradicts straightforward scriptural teachings such as 1 Corinthians 15:50, believers face a dilemma: trust the tradition of infallibility or remain loyal to the inspired text. The inherent tension suggests that the Bible does not endorse an office of absolute, unerring pronouncements. Despite centuries of tradition, the scriptural record affirms that Jesus alone holds unchallenged authority, with no mortal vested with inerrancy of doctrine.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).