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Doubt is a state of mind characterized by an absence of either assent or dissent to a certain proposition. It is a suspension of commitment to belief or disbelief, either because the evidence pro and con is evenly balanced (positive doubt) or because evidence is lacking for either side (negative doubt, exemplified by the apostle Thomas). Doubt is thus an integral part of each person’s belief system, since it is impossible for anyone to believe or disbelieve with complete certainty all propositions of which he or she is aware. Yet in spite of the natural occurrence of doubt in human cognition, many people view doubt as a negative mindset to be avoided if at all possible.

Doubt is a topic of interest to scholars from three academic disciplines. Philosophers study doubt because of its epistemological implications in relation to knowledge, truth, and awareness of existence. Theologians are concerned with doubt because it often occurs as a prelude to belief or as a precursor of disbelief. Psychologists investigate doubt because of the emotions that often accompany it (anxiety, depression, or fear) and because in certain pathologies doubt can become obsessional and debilitating.

Doubt, Unbelief, and Ambivalence. One can differentiate between doubt and unbelief. Unbelief is a positive conviction of falsity regarding an issue and hence is a form of belief. Doubt does not imply a belief in a contrary position; it is simply being unconvinced. If, however, doubt becomes pervasive and dominates the thinking of a person regarding all issues, it is more appropriately called skepticism or definitive doubt. The skeptic despairs of ever knowing truth with certainty.

One can also distinguish doubt from ambivalence. Ambivalence is a state of mind characterized by the concurrent presence of two or more differing feelings toward the same object. Indecisiveness and vacillation, although related to doubt, refer more to a lack of commitment to a proposition or to a frequent change of opinion. Ambivalence in massive quantities is classically seen as a primary indicator of schizophrenia, whereas massive doubt is more often a part of obsessional disorders.

One can differentiate between normal doubt and abnormal doubt chiefly by the degree to which the doubt impairs daily living. Doubt is normal when it does not dominate a person’s thinking, when it is overshadowed by stable beliefs, and when the goal of the doubt is resolution into belief or disbelief. Doubt is also normal when employed, as René Descartes advocated, for the purpose of seeking truth. Normal doubt is a type of mental clarification and can help a person better organize his or her beliefs. Developmental theorists have noted several phases of life when doubts are characteristically found: in adolescence, when the teenager moves from childhood credulity toward a personalized belief system, and in the middle years, when issues of competence and direction predominate (Grant, 1974). Abnormal doubt, unlike normal doubt, focuses on issues having little consequence or issues without grave implications of error.

Religious Doubt. Religious doubt has been a concern of believers from biblical days to the present. In the garden of Eden the serpent used doubt as a tool to move Eve from a position of belief to one of disobedience. Abraham, Job, and David all had times of doubt that were painful yet growth-producing. The best-known example of doubt in the Bible is Thomas, who was absent when Jesus made a postresurrection appearance to the ten apostles. Jesus showed the ten his hands and his side (John 20), evidence that dispelled their doubt as to his identity. When told of Jesus’ appearance, Thomas replied that he would not believe until he too had seen the evidence. Eight days later Jesus reappeared, showed Thomas his wounds, and made a gracious plea for faith.

By way of contrast, Jesus consistently condemned unbelief wherever he found it. Jesus presumably tolerated doubt because it was a transitory, nonpermanent state of mind, whereas he condemned unbelief because it was a fixed decision often accompanied by hardness of heart. Guinness (1976) cautions, however, that Scripture sometimes uses the word unbelief to refer to doubt (Mark 9:24). Hence exegetical care is needed when interpreting the Bible’s teachings regarding doubt.

Doubt is a problem in theological systems committed to inscripturated truth. For example, evangelical Christians are generally not tolerant of doubt if it is prolonged, unyielding, and centered on cardinal truths. Doubt is not so much a problem in liberal theologies since truth in those systems is more relative and less certain. Thus the conservative Christian community sees doubt as risky and dangerous, whereas the liberal Christian community sees doubt as a sign of healthy intellectual inquiry. Some psychologists of religion even see doubt, particularly as envisioned within a questing religious orientation (see Batson, Schoenrade, & Ventis, 1993), as an indication of religious maturity.

Normal doubt tends to appear when a person’s belief system “does not protect the individual in his life experiences and from its more painful states” (Halfaer, 1972, p. 216). Doubt is resolved into belief or disbelief in any of four ways: through conversion, through liberalization, through renewal, or through emotional growth. Individuals can construct rigid defenses designed to ensure belief and prevent doubt at all costs such as sometimes occurs in cults that discourage any reexamination of beliefs.

Doubt and Psychopathology. In psychopathology doubt often occurs as a prominent symptom in the obsessive-compulsive disorders. Earlier in the twentieth century a special diagnostic category was created called folie du doute, or doubting mania. The disorder was described as an extreme self-consciousness and a preoccupation with hesitation and doubt. The condition was frequently considered progressive and incurable. Eventually the disorder was seen as but one variety of an obsessive-compulsive disorder, since the doubting mania was accompanied by overconscientiousness, fears of contamination, and other obsessive-compulsive characteristics.

The obsessive doubter is one whose symptoms have taken a cognitive rather than a predominantly behavioral form. In other words, the doubter is usually more obsessive than compulsive, although the dynamics behind either form is similar. The obsessive doubter usually centers his or her thinking on some imponderable issue that is just beyond the pale of provability. For example, the doubter may fret over issues of existence (Do I really exist?) or over issues of reality (Did I actually put a stamp on the letter I just mailed?). As a doubter becomes more and more proficient in his or her ruminations, an elaborate network of essentially futile mental operations develops.

If the obsessive doubter is religious, the doubts will likely involve issues of God’s existence, God’s involvement in human affairs, salvation, security, and one’s eternal state. Doubters who are serious students of Scripture will find an ample supply of issues that qualify for obsessive doubting, issues essentially unanswerable or imponderable. For example, the obsessive doubter who reads Jesus’ statement, “If anyone is ashamed of me and my words, the Son of Man will be ashamed of him” (Luke 9:26, niv), may worry about a specific time of embarrassment or shame in the past. Soon all confidence and security disappear, and the doubter fears eternal damnation.

There are several characteristics of the teachings of Jesus that seem to aggravate the obsessive doubter (Beck, 1981). Jesus frequently used themes of exclusivity (Matt. 10:33), absoluteness (Luke 18:22), abstractness (Mark 9:43, 45), impossibility (Mark 10:25), and prohibition (Luke 13:28). Any of these themes can aggravate the obsessive’s tendency to be overconscientious, rigid, and concrete, resulting in doubts.

Professional help is indicated in cases of obsessive doubting (Salzman, 1980). If treatment commences soon enough in the process, the prognosis is generally favorable. Therapy can help the sufferer to learn new channels for coping with anxiety and new patterns of effective decision making.

Doubt can be a valuable part of one’s life if its goal is resolution and if it results in deeper commitment to existing beliefs and less commitment to extraneous or harmful presuppositions (Pruyser, 1974). All belief has about it a feeling of resolved doubt. Hence as the doubter moves toward belief, his or her life is enriched by the resulting relief and satisfaction.

By R. Beck

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BIBLICAL STUDIES / INTERPRETATION

EARLY CHRISTIANITY

CHRISTIAN APOLOGETIC EVANGELISM

TECHNOLOGY AND THE CHRISTIAN

CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY

CHRISTIAN DEVOTIONALS

CHRISTIAN FICTION

References[1]

[1] Batson, C. D., Schoenrade, P., & Ventis, W. L. (1993). Religion and the individual: A social-psychological perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.

Beck, J. R. (1981). Treatment of spiritual doubt among obsessing evangelicals. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 9,  224–231.

Grant, V. W. (1974). The roots of religious doubt and the search for security. New York: Seabury.

Guinness, O. (1976). In two minds: The dilemma of doubt and how to resolve it. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Halfaer, P. M. (1972). The psychology of religious doubt. Boston: Beacon.

Pruyser, P. W. (1974). Between belief and unbelief. New York: Harper & Row.

Salzman, L. (1980). Treatment of the obsessive personality. New York: Aronson.

368. R. Beck, “Doubt,” ed. David G. Benner and Peter C. Hill, Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology & Counseling, Baker Reference Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999), 367–368.