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Introduction: Christianity’s Emergence Within the Roman World
The rise of Christianity within the Roman Empire was not merely a religious development but a decisive transformation in the history of Western civilization. Rooted in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth, which began in 29 C.E. (cf. Luke 3:1–2), Christianity grew rapidly from its Jewish origins, expanding across the Greco-Roman world through the apostolic mission and the Holy Spirit-inspired Scriptures. From the outset, Christianity was perceived with suspicion due to its exclusivist theological claims, rejection of idolatry, and refusal to venerate the emperor—a refusal seen not as religious conviction but as sedition. As the church expanded, so did imperial awareness and, eventually, reaction. This article examines the attitudes and actions of Roman emperors from Claudius to Constantine, emphasizing their interactions with Christians from a conservative evangelical perspective, using both biblical and historical evidence.
Famine during the Reign of Caesar Claudius
Claudius (Reigned 41–54 C.E.): Administrative Expulsion, Not Theological Opposition
The earliest imperial reaction to Christianity is associated with Emperor Claudius. According to Acts 18:2, Paul met Aquila and Priscilla in Corinth “because Claudius had commanded all the Jews to leave Rome.” This event is corroborated by the Roman historian Suetonius, who wrote in The Lives of the Caesars (Claudius 25.4): “He expelled from Rome the Jews constantly making disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus.” The name “Chrestus” is likely a corrupted form of “Christos,” or Christ, indicating intra-Jewish disputes concerning Jesus of Nazareth. This suggests that the Christian message had caused enough controversy among Rome’s Jewish community that imperial intervention was warranted.
Image illustrating early Roman Emperors engaging with early Christian figures in a dramatic historical setting.
However, Claudius’s action was not aimed directly at Christians as a distinct group but rather at Jewish unrest. The Roman state at this time still considered Christians a sect within Judaism, and there was no doctrinal suppression involved. This expulsion likely occurred in 49 C.E., just prior to the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), and reflects how early Christianity’s Jewish roots entangled it in broader sociopolitical tensions.
Nero (Reigned 54–68 C.E.): The First Explicit Imperial Persecution
The shift from administrative concern to outright persecution occurred under Nero, following the Great Fire of Rome in 64 C.E. Tacitus, a first-century Roman historian, records the episode in Annals 15.44: “To suppress the rumor [that Nero had started the fire], Nero fabricated scapegoats and punished with every refinement the notoriously depraved Christians… They were covered in wild beasts’ skins and torn to death by dogs, or they were fastened on crosses and, when daylight failed, were burned to serve as lamps by night.”
This is the first explicit and direct persecution of Christians by the imperial government. Although limited geographically to Rome, it was horrific in nature and set a precedent. Christians were now officially distinguished from Jews in Roman perception and were recognized as a distinct religio illicita (illegal religion), not formally by law but by imperial hostility. Biblical chronology situates Peter and Paul’s martyrdoms during this persecution—Peter likely crucified and Paul beheaded (2 Timothy 4:6–8; 1 Peter 5:13).
Nero’s campaign reflected the popular hatred Christians faced for refusing to participate in Roman religious life. Their rejection of idolatry (1 Corinthians 10:14), refusal to call Caesar “lord,” and exclusive allegiance to Jesus (Romans 10:9) branded them as enemies of both piety and public order.
Domitian (Reigned 81–96 C.E.): A Climate of Suspicion and Isolation
While there is no edict from Domitian mandating the persecution of Christians, various early church sources, including Tertullian and Eusebius, suggest that Domitian created an atmosphere of increasing hostility. The emperor deified himself and demanded that he be addressed as “Dominus et Deus” (“Lord and God”). Christians, who confessed only one Lord, Jesus Christ (1 Corinthians 8:6), could not comply.
Depiction of Emperor Domitian in a grand Roman forum setting, reflecting the power and atmosphere of his reign.
Revelation, written by the Apostle John around 96 C.E. (Revelation 1:9), likely during Domitian’s reign, reflects the pressure the imperial cult exerted on Christians. The symbolic “beast” demanding worship (Revelation 13:4–8) can be reasonably interpreted within this historical context, not as a typological image, but as a real threat from a state system aligned against Christian allegiance to Christ.
Domitian reportedly executed Flavius Clemens, a Roman consul and possible Christian, and banished his wife Flavia Domitilla. These events support the view that high-ranking Christians were targeted, likely not solely for their faith but under accusations of atheism—refusal to worship the Roman gods.
Trajan (Reigned 98–117 C.E.): Pragmatic Legalization of Persecution
Under Emperor Trajan, imperial policy toward Christians became more legally articulated. His correspondence with Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia-Pontus, around 112 C.E. gives us one of the clearest early legal precedents. Pliny reported that Christians would not curse Christ or worship the emperor, and that he executed only those who refused to recant. Trajan replied:
“They are not to be sought out. If accused and proven guilty, they should be punished. However, anyone who denies being a Christian and proves it by worshiping our gods shall obtain pardon.”
Depiction of Emperor Trajan in front of his forum, reflecting his role as a builder and military leader.
This policy did not initiate empire-wide persecution but affirmed that Christianity, by virtue of its exclusivist refusal to worship Rome’s gods, was punishable by death. Christians were thus not targeted systematically but were legally vulnerable. The martyrdom of Ignatius of Antioch, who declared, “I am God’s wheat, and I am ground by the teeth of wild beasts,” occurred under this policy.
Hadrian continued the policy of Trajan but refined its execution. In a rescript to Minucius Fundanus, proconsul of Asia (preserved in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 4.9), Hadrian insisted that Christians could only be punished if they violated laws, not merely for bearing the name “Christian.” Accusers who brought false charges were to be punished themselves. This introduced a measure of legal protection, though it did not prohibit the punishment of practicing Christians.
Image of Emperor Hadrian, capturing both his intellectual and architectural legacy.
While this may appear as a form of tolerance, it was a legal clarification, not theological acceptance. Christianity was still outside the bounds of accepted Roman religion. This period likely witnessed the martyrdom of early apologists like Quadratus and Aristides and the composition of Justin Martyr’s first Apology, which appealed to reason and legal justice.
Hadrian’s wall.
Antoninus Pius (Reigned 138–161 C.E.): Relative Peace Amid Local Hostility
Under Antoninus Pius, no systematic imperial action was taken against Christians. Justin Martyr, writing around 155 C.E., addressed his second Apology to the emperor, emphasizing the irrationality of punishing Christians for a mere name. Antoninus is noted in some sources (e.g., Melito of Sardis) as having protected Christians from false accusations. However, localized persecutions still occurred.
The martyrdom of Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, around 155 C.E., underlined the persistent hostility from Roman provincial leaders and local populaces. The account, preserved in The Martyrdom of Polycarp, reveals the Roman view that Christian obstinacy was criminal, even without direct imperial commands.
Marcus Aurelius (Reigned 161–180 C.E.): Renewed Violence in Times of Crisis
Marcus Aurelius, though known as a Stoic philosopher, permitted or overlooked increased persecution of Christians. During periods of natural disaster, famine, and war, Christians were scapegoated for angering the gods. The martyrdom of Blandina and the Christians of Lyon in 177 C.E. occurred under his reign. Eusebius records that believers were tortured, mutilated, and thrown to wild beasts.
Depiction of Emperor Marcus Aurelius during a military campaign, reflecting both his leadership and philosophical depth.
This reveals that while emperors like Marcus did not always legislate persecution, their philosophical or religious worldview allowed space for it when Christian beliefs threatened societal cohesion.
Septimius Severus (Reigned 193–211 C.E.): Prohibition of Conversion
Severus initially tolerated Christians but later issued an edict around 202 C.E. prohibiting conversion to Christianity and Judaism. This led to a renewed wave of persecution, particularly in North Africa. Tertullian, an early Christian apologist, wrote extensively against such policies. The martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas in Carthage occurred during this period.
Depiction of Emperor Septimius Severus, portraying his authority, North African roots, and dynastic presence with his sons Caracalla and Geta.
Their testimony is one of the earliest extant Christian martyrdom narratives, highlighting the steadfastness of female believers and their doctrinal clarity even under torture.
Decius (Reigned 249–251 C.E.): First Empire-Wide Mandate for Sacrifice
Decius issued a decree requiring all citizens to offer incense to the Roman gods and obtain a certificate (libellus) proving their compliance. Christians who refused were executed, imprisoned, or tortured. This marked the first empire-wide, systematic persecution. It was not about extinguishing Christianity but forcing religious conformity for imperial unity.
Depiction of Emperor Decius, emphasizing the dramatic and tense atmosphere during his persecution of Christians.
The result was significant apostasy and later theological disputes within the church regarding how to treat the “lapsed.” Conservative bishops like Cyprian of Carthage maintained a strict view of readmission through penance and proof of repentance.
Diocletian (Reigned 284–305 C.E.): The Great Persecution
Under Diocletian and Galerius, the empire experienced its most extensive persecution. Beginning in 303 C.E., a series of four edicts ordered churches destroyed, Scriptures burned, and Christians deprived of legal rights. Clergy were imprisoned, and sacrifice was mandated under penalty of death.
Depiction of Emperor Diocletian in a dramatic palace setting, highlighting his authority during the Tetrarchy and the Christian persecutions.
Eusebius’s Ecclesiastical History and Martyrs of Palestine chronicle the intense suffering of believers. Despite this, the church grew, as its steadfastness under trial impressed many. The persecution began to wane as Galerius issued the Edict of Toleration in 311 C.E., confessing failure and allowing Christians to exist, albeit grudgingly.
Constantine (Reigned 306–337 C.E.): Legalization and Favor
The turning point came with Constantine’s conversion and his victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 C.E. In 313, the Edict of Milan, co-signed with Licinius, granted Christians the right to worship freely and restored confiscated properties. While this was not yet the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, it marked the end of persecution.
Portrayal of Emperor Constantine the Great—emphasizing his pivotal role in uniting the Roman Empire with Christianity.
Constantine’s favor toward the church culminated in the convening of the Council of Nicaea in 325 C.E., not to impose theology, but to address internal divisions (e.g., the Arian controversy). For the first time, the church and empire were no longer adversaries—but the relationship now carried both opportunity and risk for doctrinal purity.
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
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