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The Roman Empire of the first centuries C.E. was more complex than many modern readers imagine. Literacy was not merely an on-or-off skill. Degrees of reading and writing ability ranged from illiterate manual laborers to highly skilled professionals trained in drafting documents. The Christian congregation, emerging in this setting, relied extensively on reading, writing, and distributing texts. These activities enabled congregations to share teachings about the Messiah and to unify believers across vast geographical and cultural boundaries (Colossians 4:16). How widespread was literacy? What level of skill did Jesus, the apostles, and early disciples have? How did early Christians publish their writings, and how were these manuscripts preserved? Examining books, reading, writing, and literacy in the first centuries of the Common Era reveals that early Christianity benefited profoundly from the written word, whether in the form of letters, papyrus scrolls, or codices.

The Multilayered Nature of Literacy in the Ancient World

In the empire, people frequently possessed at least a rudimentary capacity to read or count, even if they were not highly trained scribes (Acts 21:37). Some individuals might read basic advertisements or public notices and sign documents while struggling to compose lengthy texts. This environment prompts historians to clarify definitions of literacy. At one extreme, a fully illiterate person might be unable to sign a name or perform elementary mathematics. Climbing upward, another might manage short words, keep simple accounts, or copy names and addresses. Beyond these were those who read fluently and wrote short business documents. A smaller group became proficient scribes, able to draft longer compositions. The top tier, perhaps a tiny percentage of the population, handled professional writing tasks such as lengthy contracts or philosophical treatises.

Not every land demanded the same degree of literacy. A small village in Galilee did not mirror the bustling city of Rome with its Senate and bureaucratic networks. Even so, evidence shows that many inhabitants in smaller towns had enough competence to handle everyday business. Judaism and Christianity, distinct in their devotion to Scripture, pushed their adherents to value reading. In the eyes of devout Jews, the Law was of paramount importance (Deuteronomy 6:6-9). Similarly, the early Christians read aloud from their own inspired writings, which they held on equal footing with the Hebrew Scriptures (2 Peter 3:15-16).

Jewish Groundwork for Literacy and Early Christian Education

The background from which Christianity emerged included an emphasis on knowing Jehovah’s Law. Deuteronomy 6:8-9, although using figurative language, shows how ancient Israelites were exhorted to keep God’s commandments before their eyes. That deep reverence for the written word shaped how Jewish parents taught their children. The first-century Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the Jewish people from an early age placed primary importance on learning the Law of God, a commitment that implied reading and memorizing large portions of Scripture.

Philo of Alexandria (20 B.C.E.–50 C.E.) spoke similarly about Jewish families instilling knowledge of the Law in their children. When the earliest followers of Jesus were drawn predominantly from among the Jewish population (Acts 2:5, 41), they carried forward the same sense that Scripture-based teachings required careful reading. The story of twelve-year-old Jesus at the temple (Luke 2:46-47) fits well in a context where a capable Jewish youth might read Scripture and confidently discuss it with knowledgeable leaders. In Luke 4:16-20, an adult Jesus in Nazareth read from the scroll of Isaiah, further reinforcing the notion that he and his contemporaries in the synagogue were used to encountering the text in a written form.

The Overlapping Languages of the First Century

The typical inhabitant of first-century Palestine might hear or speak Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek. Latin was less prevalent among the common folk but surfaced in official contexts (John 19:20). Aramaic was commonly used by Galileans, while Koine Greek functioned as the administrative and commercial medium across the eastern Roman provinces. Many diaspora Jews also knew Greek well enough to handle the Septuagint—the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. In Jewish circles, the ability to read from or quote these Scriptures suggested a familiarity with more than one language (Acts 6:1). This multilingual environment contributed to a vibrant textual culture where both official proclamations and sacred writings were disseminated.

The Spread of Roman Literacy and the Papyrus Landscape

The Roman Empire’s administrative structure relied on documents: tax records, land deeds, letters, shipping manifests, petitions, and so forth. Archivists, scribes, and clerks supported the empire’s bureaucracy. Public inscriptions appeared in stone or bronze across towns, proclaiming laws or honoring civic achievements. Tombstones in many regions bore longer epitaphs that included poetry or dire warnings to grave robbers (Romans 15:4 references the concept that believers learned from earlier writings, suggesting that reading older texts was a known practice).

An archaeological breakthrough came from Egyptian garbage dumps such as the site at Oxyrhynchus. There, in the dry climate, scholars uncovered hundreds of thousands of papyrus fragments—letters, official forms, receipts, private notes, and some Christian texts. These testimonies to daily life arose from ordinary inhabitants who read or wrote Koine Greek. The conclusion that emerges is that literacy in the empire, though not universal, was far from insignificant. If this was true in places like Oxyrhynchus, it was equally, or more so, in major centers such as Alexandria, Corinth, Antioch, and eventually Rome. The combination of official demands, commerce, and personal communications fostered the spread of at least rudimentary literacy.

Graffiti, Inscriptions, and Everyday Literacy

Graffiti scrawled on walls in Pompeii and Herculaneum reveals that not only officials or scribes put words to writing. Ordinary men and women scratched or painted messages, from daily jokes to love poems to pleas and greetings. These everyday scribbles confirm that reading and writing penetrated lower strata of society (Matthew 21:15 suggests even children recognized and repeated praises from Scripture). It is unlikely that professional authors were behind all these ephemeral texts. Instead, they show that workers, artisans, and shopkeepers might pick up a stylus or piece of charcoal and leave a comment. The same pattern was true in Jewish territory, though their graffiti was often less “colorful” than that of Pompeii. It still indicated that many encountered writing in daily life.

Books and Scrolls in the Synagogue and Early Congregations

Because first-century Jews held the Hebrew Scriptures in high esteem, synagogues in both Judaea and the diaspora commonly had Scripture scrolls. Public readings occurred each Sabbath (Luke 4:16-18). The earliest Christians inherited this custom of reading aloud, especially from apostolic writings they already recognized as “Scripture” (1 Timothy 5:18; 2 Peter 3:15-16). Over time, believers collected and preserved letters from figures such as Paul, Peter, and John. They also treasured accounts of Jesus’ life, known as the Gospels. By the mid-second century, authors such as Justin Martyr reported that Christian congregations gathered every week to hear “the memoirs of the apostles” read alongside the Law and the Prophets.

The codex (book form) emerged as a distinctive feature of Christian textual transmission. While the elite Roman classes continued favoring scrolls, the early churches appreciated the codex’s practicality—pages could be referred to more easily, and entire collections of Pauline epistles or Gospels fit neatly between covers. By the late first or early second century, many Christian writings existed in codex form. Surviving fragments of New Testament papyri (like P52, often dated to about 125 C.E.) hint at a robust culture of copying, sharing, and reading.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Literacy and the Composition of New Testament Writings

Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Paul, James, Jude, and Peter penned—or dictated to secretaries—writings that early Christians identified as inspired Scripture (2 Peter 3:16). Scholars debate whether each was personally skilled at writing or if they used trained scribes. For instance, Tertius assisted Paul in composing Romans (Romans 16:22). The apostle might have occasionally penned the concluding lines in his own hand to authenticate his letters (Galatians 6:11; 2 Thessalonians 3:17). The repeated emphasis on reading these letters publicly (Colossians 4:16; 1 Thessalonians 5:27; 1 Timothy 4:13) underlines the early congregations’ reverence for the text and readiness to study it.

Jesus’ disciples had come from various occupations, including fishing and tax collection, but no textual proof indicates that they remained incompetent in writing or reading. The Scripture implies they understood the need to deliver and preserve accurate teaching (Acts 2:42). They also lived in a climate of widespread literate practice among Jews, who expected to encounter words from the Law or from teachers explaining it.

Distinctions Between Rabbinic Training and Actual Literacy

When Acts 4:13 says that Peter and John were “uneducated and untrained,” the meaning is that they had not received advanced rabbinic schooling or formal scribal credentials. It does not suggest they were illiterate or clueless about the Hebrew Scriptures. Rather, they lacked the “lettered” status recognized in Jewish scholarly circles. The same is true for Jesus, concerning whom onlookers asked how he knew so much “without having studied” in the recognized schools (John 7:15). The Gospels and Acts consistently portray him and his followers quoting, reading, and applying Scripture with authority (Matthew 4:4-10; Luke 4:21; Acts 2:16-36). Repeated mention of “Have you not read…?” (Matthew 12:3; 12:5; 19:4) confirms that they relied on the written form of God’s Word.

Letters, Communication, and the Spread of Christian Doctrine

Roman roads and maritime routes allowed for swift journeys across the empire, giving traveling teachers the chance to visit congregations in Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Italy. Letters accompanied them, and entrusted couriers such as Tychicus or Phoebe could carry scrolls or codices with the new instructions (Ephesians 6:21-22; Romans 16:1). Paul wrote extensively to provide counsel and to address local controversies. His words circulated beyond individual cities, as believers copied them to share with neighboring assemblies.

Social networks and diaspora synagogues helped Gentiles and Jews become acquainted with the Hebrew Scriptures. This readiness contributed to a quick reception of written Christian texts. Such texts did more than convey theological statements—they also guided moral conduct. Editors or scribes might add short headings or marginal notes to clarify sections for recitation. These steps all reflect that readers were meant to approach the text thoughtfully.

The Role of Education Within Congregations

Within Christian gatherings, certain members demonstrated gifts for teaching (Romans 12:7). Others specialized in reading or copying manuscripts, a role recognized as valuable service to the community. Some possibly resembled the Jewish synagogue attendant, who read the scroll and handled day-to-day caretaking (Luke 4:17-20). Early church leaders such as Clement of Rome (late first century) and Polycarp (early second century) valued the texts deeply. They regularly cited the Gospels and epistles, showing that they treated the New Testament as Scripture on par with the Law, Prophets, and Writings of the Old Testament (Hebrews 4:12). In time, educational habits that sprang from Jewish culture dovetailed with the Christian impetus to preserve and study the apostles’ teachings.

Concerns About Integrity and Copying

From the earliest stages, believers recognized the importance of safeguarding the text. Citing Deuteronomy’s warning not to add or take away (Deuteronomy 4:2; 12:32), they viewed the New Testament writings as sacred. Writers such as Irenaeus (second century) condemned any attempt to alter the text (Revelation 22:18-19). They pronounced a “woe” on those who tried to manipulate even minor details (2 Peter 3:15-16; Galatians 1:6-9). The epistle of Barnabas, the Didache, and the letters of Dionysius of Corinth echo these sentiments, showing how the early church believed strongly in textual fidelity. Scholarly analyses of early papyri (e.g., P66, P75) confirm that while copyists sometimes erred, many displayed disciplined care for the words they transmitted.

Literary Culture and Publication Methods

The first believers did not produce scrolls for idle curiosity. They wrote and copied Gospels and epistles to instruct, encourage, and unite congregations (1 Corinthians 4:17). Once the codex format gained traction, Christian writings took a distinct shape compared to pagan literature, which often remained on scrolls. Early copies reveal “nomina sacra,” or sacred contractions, as universal markers of reverence for divine names. Uniform abbreviations for “God,” “Lord,” “Jesus,” and “Christ” appear in widely scattered manuscripts. These consistent patterns reflect a coherent textual approach stretching from Syria to Egypt to Italy.

As the decades passed, the Christian message expanded in multiple languages. Even while Greek retained a central role, regions such as Egypt turned to Coptic translations, and believers in Syria developed Syriac versions. The first translations of the Gospels and epistles arose by the end of the second century C.E., demonstrating that congregations well beyond the Greek-speaking zones wanted direct access to the Word of God.

The Reading Communities of Early Christians

Roman elites sometimes used elaborate scripts that demanded advanced training from would-be readers. By contrast, early Christian codices employed more straightforward writing styles. The goal was accessibility rather than exclusivity. The text typically had fewer visual flourishes, focusing on clarity. Individuals designated to read Scripture publicly did not need a high-society education but basic fluency. In smaller communities, congregations likely included men or women who, while not fully literate in every sense, could still handle short sentences or verify references (Acts 17:11). Others who were proficient guided novices, enabling broader involvement in scriptural learning.

Scholars like William A. Johnson emphasize that reading cannot be detached from culture. The early church’s reading culture prized edification. Believers studied Scripture or circulated epistles to clarify doctrine, reprove misconduct, or strengthen unity. The texts were recited communally, then discussed. Believers were taught to treasure “the pattern of sound words” (2 Timothy 1:13). Scribes who produced copies had an understood responsibility to preserve the text untainted.

Evaluating Modern Claims About Low Literacy

Modern estimates sometimes suggest only a small fraction of Roman inhabitants could read well. Such aggregates, however, overlook the nuances: local differences in education, the impetus of Jewish tradition, and the unique drive of Christianity to share written teachings. Pompeii’s graffiti alone testifies that numerous individuals possessed at least functional literacy, enough to compose or read short messages. The widespread practice of posting official acts or daily bulletins (Acta Diurna) in public spaces implies an expectation that passersby could glean relevant information.

Early Christians spread from urban centers to rural districts, from Antioch to Rome. The impetus to study Scripture in each local congregation ensured that some believers could read or, at minimum, memorize the texts carefully. Even in simpler communities, traveling teachers explained letters. While not every Christian wrote fluently, the supportive environment allowed the community to function as a group that cherished reading. Any literate members could copy or share the Gospels, epistles, or the Hebrew Scriptures.

Textual Preservation and the Desire for Accuracy

The impetus behind copying the Gospels and epistles was not mere academic interest but conviction that these words were God’s own message (2 Timothy 3:16). Publishers of antiquity did not exist like modern printing houses, so scribes produced new copies, sometimes verifying or comparing them to exemplars. The second-century Bishop Dionysius of Corinth lamented that certain individuals tampered with his own writings and “the Lord’s writings,” placing them under a divine woe (Revelation 22:18-19). Irenaeus voiced similar concerns, complaining specifically about the number 666 in Revelation 13:18. These examples confirm that fidelity to the text was no mere afterthought.

The impetus to share Scripture widely meant that Christian communities needed accurate manuscripts. While scribal errors crept in, the large pool of manuscripts, often cross-checked by watchful overseers, ensured that no single corruption dominated. When some tried to alter passages for doctrinal reasons, mainstream congregations recognized the discrepancies by comparing copies. These measures reveal a remarkable readiness to preserve the apostolic message unadulterated.

Conclusion

Books, reading, and writing profoundly influenced the shape of early Christianity. Far from existing in a purely oral vacuum, believers created a flourishing culture centered on Scripture. They capitalized on Roman roads, sea routes, and evolving forms of writing technology, especially the codex. They read Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, sometimes Latin, and later Coptic or Syriac, reflecting the many backgrounds that merged in the Christian faith. While not everyone had the same level of literacy, many possessed enough skill to handle Scripture in communal settings, copy texts, scrawl graffiti, or read official postings.

Above all, the impetus for reading within the Christian community sprang from reverence for God’s Word. The Gospels, epistles, and Revelation rapidly joined the Hebrew Scriptures as sacred texts not to be tampered with (2 Peter 3:15-16). Church leaders repeatedly warned against adding or subtracting from inspired writings (Deuteronomy 4:2; Revelation 22:18-19). They honored the text as a source of truth and guidance, distributing copies and translations so that diverse audiences could hear or read in their own languages. These early believers showed that an eager, text-oriented faith could thrive in a society with broad gradations of literacy. Their determination to read and preserve the apostolic writings transformed daily life in congregations and ensured that nearly two millennia later, modern readers can still benefit from an authentic testimony to Jesus Christ and his teachings.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).