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Ramses II—Introduction and Family and Early Life

Introduction to Ramses II

Ramses II, also known as Ramses the Great, is one of the most celebrated pharaohs in the annals of Egyptian history. His reign (1279-1213 BCE) marks a pinnacle of Egypt’s power and artistic flourish. He is frequently referenced in discussions about biblical chronology, particularly concerning the Exodus. Although the biblical narrative does not explicitly name Ramses II as the pharaoh of the Exodus, some scholars and theologians often connect him with this event due to the timing and his extensive building projects, including the cities of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile delta, which some equate with the biblical city of Ramses mentioned in Exodus 1:11. However, this would be a mistake. Literal Bible chronology places the Exodus in 1446 B.C.E.

The Younger Memnon (c. 1250 BC), a statue depicting Ramesses II, from the Ramesseum in Thebes. Currently on display at the British Museum in London.

Despite being a favored candidate due to the biblical mention of the city of Ramses, significant challenges exist in correlating Ramses II with the Exodus narrative. His reign was one of the most documented, yet there are no records that align with the occurrence of the ten plagues or the mass exodus of Israelite slaves, events that would undoubtedly have been noted due to their impact. Furthermore, the prosperity and extensive building projects that continued throughout his reign suggest that Egypt did not suffer the kind of widespread devastation that the biblical plagues would have caused.

Family Background

Ramses II was born to Pharaoh Seti I and Queen Tuya, and his lineage was part of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. He was raised in a royal setting that prepared him for his future role as pharaoh. His upbringing was marked by an education that likely included military tactics, religious instruction, and administrative skills, essential for leadership in Ancient Egypt.

From a young age, Ramses was appointed Prince Regent by his father, Seti I. This early introduction to leadership helped him establish a solid foundation for his future rule. His family was instrumental in his rise to power, providing a strong network of support through their royal connections. This familial backing was crucial as Ramses II expanded Egypt’s influence through military campaigns and diplomatic endeavors.

Early Life and Ascension to Power

Ramses II’s early life was steeped in royal duty and preparation for his eventual ascension to the throne. By the age of fourteen, he was already leading battles alongside his father, showcasing his capability as a military leader. His early experiences on the battlefield helped him build the resilience and strategic acumen that would characterize his reign.

Upon the death of his father, Seti I, Ramses II ascended to the throne and embarked on a reign that would last 66 years, making him one of the longest-reigning pharaohs in Egyptian history. His ascension was marked by elaborate religious ceremonies and building projects that affirmed his divine right to rule, a common practice among pharaohs to validate their power.

Scripturally, while Ramses II’s era aligns with some chronological estimates for the Israelites’ presence in Egypt, it is important to recognize that the Bible does not provide direct references linking him explicitly with events described in Exodus. The connection between Ramses II and biblical accounts is derived from archaeological and historical analysis rather than scriptural evidence.

Ramesses II as a child embraced by Hauron (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)

For instance, Exodus 1:11 references the Israelites building the city of Ramses: “Therefore they did set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.” This verse has led some to speculate about the timeline of Ramses II’s reign in relation to the Israelite slavery in Egypt, though it remains a topic of scholarly debate.

In examining the life and impact of Ramses II, it is crucial to consider both the archaeological record and the biblical account while maintaining a clear distinction between the two. His contributions to Egypt’s architectural and cultural legacies are well-documented, whereas his connection to biblical narratives such as the Exodus remains speculative and not universally accepted among scholars.

Through this detailed exploration of Ramses II’s introduction, family, and early life, we gain a deeper understanding of his role and the complexities surrounding his connection to biblical events. This analysis provides a foundation for further examination of his military exploits, administrative reforms, and cultural contributions to ancient Egyptian society.

Ramses II. In traditional depictions, Pharaohs, including Ramses II, are often shown with a false beard. This false beard, known as a “postiche,” was a stylized, ceremonial beard that was not meant to represent natural facial hair but rather was a symbol of divine kingship and authority. These beards were usually made of metal or other materials and were worn strapped to the chin during religious and state ceremonies. The practice was symbolic, signifying the pharaoh’s godlike status and his or her role as a mediator between the gods and the people. Ramses II, known for his grand monuments and status as one of Egypt’s most powerful pharaohs, is frequently depicted in statues and reliefs wearing this ceremonial beard.

Women Pharaohs? Beards?

Yes, indeed! While it is less common, there were women who ruled as pharaohs in ancient Egypt, and they also sometimes adopted similar symbols of pharaonic power, including the false beard. The most famous example is Queen Hatshepsut, one of Egypt’s most successful pharaohs. During her reign, Hatshepsut often depicted herself in traditional male regalia, including the false beard, to assert her authority and legitimacy as a ruler in a predominantly male role. This use of the false beard by female pharaohs was symbolic, emphasizing their status and power, aligning with the traditional iconography of pharaohs.

Ramses II: An Examination of His Military Campaigns

Military Engagements and Strategic Victories of Ramesses II

From the outset of his reign, Ramesses II was actively engaged in numerous military campaigns aimed at reclaiming territories previously lost to the Nubians and Hittites and at securing Egypt’s borders. In addition to these efforts, he quelled several revolts in Nubia and launched a significant campaign in Libya. While the Battle of Kadesh is frequently highlighted as a defining moment in his military career, Ramesses II achieved numerous victories that underscored his military acumen and reinforced Egypt’s dominance in the region. During his rule, the Egyptian army, comprising approximately 100,000 men, was a formidable force that played a crucial role in expanding and consolidating Egyptian influence.

Naval Confrontation with the Sherden Pirates

In the second year of his reign, Ramesses II successfully neutralized a major threat posed by the Sherden sea pirates, who had been disrupting maritime commerce along Egypt’s Mediterranean coast. The pirates, likely originating from the coast of Ionia, southwest Anatolia, or possibly the island of Sardinia, had become notorious for attacking cargo ships en route to Egypt. Ramesses strategically deployed troops and naval forces at critical coastal points. By allowing the pirates to engage their targets, he set a trap, springing a surprise attack during a naval encounter and capturing the entire pirate fleet in a decisive battle. A stele from Tanis recounts their formidable presence, stating they arrived “in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them.”

This naval battle likely occurred near the Nile’s mouth, evidenced by subsequent inscriptions showing many Sherden integrated into the pharaoh’s bodyguard. Distinguished by their unique horned helmets with a central protruding ball, round shields, and the large Naue II swords, the Sherden were not only defeated but also assimilated as elite guards. In this engagement, Ramesses also overcame other seafaring groups including the Lukka (likely the ancestors of the Lycians) and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples, further demonstrating his prowess in naval warfare and strategic military planning. These victories not only secured Egypt’s coastal trade routes but also bolstered the pharaoh’s status as a formidable leader capable of defending and expanding his empire’s interests.

First Syrian Campaign

A notable relief from Memphis, housed in the Cairo Museum and dated around 1250 BC, depicts Ramesses II triumphantly capturing a Nubian, a Libyan, and a Syrian, illustrating the diverse scope of his military engagements. The early military operations of Ramesses II in Canaan, which set the stage for the famed Battle of Kadesh, commenced in the fourth year of his reign. This initial campaign is commemorated by the first of the Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb, located near present-day Beirut. Unfortunately, the inscription on this stela has become nearly illegible due to extensive weathering.

During this campaign, Ramesses II achieved a significant victory by capturing the Amurru, a Hittite vassal state, effectively extending Egyptian influence into Syria.

Second Syrian Campaign

The subsequent year marked a pivotal moment in Ramesses II’s military career—the Battle of Kadesh. Occurring in the fifth year of his reign, this battle was a climactic confrontation with the Hittite forces led by Muwatallis. The engagement at Kadesh was not merely a battle for territory but also an opportunity for Ramesses II to replicate his father Seti I’s earlier triumphal entry into the city. In preparation, Ramesses II constructed the new capital, Pi-Ramesses, where he established extensive military production facilities. These factories were capable of producing 1,000 weapons weekly, 250 chariots bi-weekly, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half, highlighting the industrial might behind Egypt’s military endeavors.

The battle itself was intense and strategic. Despite being initially caught in a Hittite ambush and outnumbered, Ramesses’s forces managed to counterattack effectively, routing the Hittites. The surviving Hittite forces abandoned their chariots and fled across the Orontes River to the safety of their city walls. However, lacking the logistical support for a prolonged siege, Ramesses was compelled to withdraw and return to Egypt.

Third Syrian Campaign

By the seventh year of Ramses II’s reign, Egypt’s influence was limited to Canaan, while Syria was predominantly under Hittite control. During this period, Canaanite princes, likely spurred by the Hittites and Egypt’s diminishing authority, initiated revolts against Egyptian rule. In response, Ramses II launched another military expedition into Syria, which proved more effective than previous attempts.

A relief of Ramesses II from Memphis showing him capturing enemies: a Nubian, a Libyan and a Syrian, c. 1250 BC. Cairo Museum

During this campaign, Ramses II divided his forces into two groups. The first group, led by his son Amun-her-khepeshef, pursued the Šhasu tribes through the Negev desert to the Dead Sea, successfully capturing the region of Edom-Seir and subsequently taking control of Moab. Meanwhile, Ramses himself commanded the second group, targeting strategic locations in Canaan including Jerusalem and Jericho. After these conquests, Ramses and his forces advanced into Moab, where they reunited with Amun-her-khepeshef’s contingent.

With their forces combined, Ramses II and his son continued their campaign, moving through Hesbon and Damascus, then on to Kumidi. Their successful military maneuvers culminated in the recapture of Upi, the territory surrounding Damascus. This series of victories allowed Ramses II to reassert Egypt’s influence over its former territories in Syria, effectively restoring its sphere of influence in the region.

These campaigns underscore Ramesses II’s strategic acumen and his ability to extend and solidify Egypt’s influence over its neighboring regions. His military exploits in Syria, particularly at Kadesh, are remembered not just for their immediate tactical successes but for their longer-term implications in consolidating Egyptian power and prestige under his reign.

Ramesses II’s Later Syrian Campaigns: Advances and Challenges

Expansion into Northern Territories

In the eighth and ninth years of his reign, Ramesses II continued to achieve military successes, pushing his forces beyond the Dog River (Nahr al-Kalb) and advancing northward into Amurru. His military expeditions reached as far north as Dapur, where he erected a statue commemorating his presence—a significant symbol of Egyptian influence extending into territories previously unvisited by Egyptian forces since the reign of Thutmose III, nearly 120 years prior. In these campaigns, Ramesses laid siege to and eventually captured the city of Tunip, marking a high point in his military endeavors in the region.

Temporary Victories and Persistent Challenges

Despite these successes, Ramesses’s control over these northern regions proved transient. By the ninth year of his reign, he felt compelled to reinforce his authority by erecting a stele at Beth Shean. After reasserting power over Canaan, he led his army further north. A mostly illegible stele near Beirut, tentatively dated to his second year, likely commemorates military activities conducted in his tenth year. The geographical constraints of the narrow strip of land between Amurru and Kadesh contributed to the instability and fleeting nature of Egyptian control, leading to its reversion to Hittite allegiance within a year.

Renewed Campaigns and Familial Involvement

Faced with these setbacks, Ramesses mobilized for another campaign against Dapur in his tenth year, where he famously claimed to have entered battle without his corslet, donning it only two hours into the conflict. This campaign was notable not just for its military aspects but also for the involvement of six of Ramesses’s young sons, who, still adorned with their traditional side locks, participated in the conquest. His forces succeeded in capturing towns in Retjenu and Tunip in Naharin, achievements that were later immortalized on the walls of the Ramesseum.

Enduring Stalemate

Despite these repeated military forays and temporary victories, the overall campaign in the region concluded with a sense of futility; neither Egypt nor the Hittite Empire could secure a decisive victory over the other. These campaigns, although showcasing Ramesses II’s tactical prowess and determination, ultimately highlighted the limits of military power in achieving lasting dominance over such contested territories. The frequent oscillations in control between the Egyptian and Hittite forces underscored the complex political landscape of the region during this period.

Reflection on the Syrian Campaigns

The repeated campaigns, temporary victories, and eventual stalemates in northern Syria and surrounding regions reflect a broader theme of ancient Near Eastern military strategy: the pursuit of shifting frontiers through persistent conflict. While Ramesses II demonstrated remarkable leadership and military skills, the fluctuating fortunes in these areas illustrate the challenges faced by ancient empires in maintaining extended territorial control amidst rival powers. Each campaign, while temporarily expanding Egyptian influence, also revealed the resilience and resistance of local and opposing forces, leading to an enduring cycle of conflict and negotiation.

These historical episodes, recorded on monuments like the Ramesseum and echoed in steles across the region, offer a window into the tumultuous yet dynamic nature of international relations and military strategy in the ancient world. They also provide valuable lessons on the limits of power and the importance of strategic diplomacy, which were as relevant in the time of Ramesses II as they are in contemporary geopolitical contexts.

Ramses II and the Peace Treaty with the Hittites

The Crisis and Resolution Between Ramesses II and Ḫattušili III

The ousted Hittite king, Mursili III, sought refuge in Egypt, the historical adversary of his nation, after his unsuccessful attempts to reclaim the throne from his uncle. This led Ḫattušili III to demand that Ramesses II extradite his nephew back to Hatti, creating a significant diplomatic tension between Egypt and Hatti when Ramesses claimed ignorance of Mursili’s presence in Egypt. This dispute brought the two empires to the brink of war. In the twenty-first year of his reign (1258 BC), Ramesses opted to negotiate a peace treaty with Ḫattušili III at Kadesh to resolve the conflict, resulting in the earliest known peace treaty in world history.

Color reproduction of the relief depicting Ramesses II storming the Hittite fortress of Dapur

This treaty was documented in both Egyptian hieroglyphs and Hittite cuneiform script, with both versions still extant. Typically, such treaties were recorded in multiple languages, but the versions of this particular treaty differed slightly in their wording. The Hittite version suggests that the Egyptians sought peace, while the Egyptian version claims the opposite. The treaty was presented to the Egyptians on a silver plaque and was later engraved into the walls of the Karnak temple.

The treaty, concluded in the year 1258 BC, contains 18 articles advocating for peace between Egypt and Hatti, emphasizing that the gods of both nations also favored peace. While the treaty does not explicitly define the borders, they can be deduced from other historical documents. The Anastasy A papyrus, for example, details Canaan during the later part of Ramesses II’s reign, listing Phoenician coastal towns under Egyptian rule. It mentions the harbor town of Sumur, north of Byblos, as the northernmost Egyptian territory, likely hosting an Egyptian garrison.

Tablet of treaty between Ḫattušili III of Hatti and Ramesses II of Egypt, at the İstanbul Archaeology Museums

Following the treaty, there are no records of further Egyptian military campaigns in Canaan, indicating a stable and peaceful northern frontier under Ramesses II’s rule until his death and the subsequent decline of his dynasty. When the King of Mira later sought to entangle Ramesses in hostilities against the Hittites, the Egyptian king declared that the era of such intrigues, once spurred by support for Mursili III, had ended. In a similar vein, Ḫattušili III communicated with Kadashman-Enlil II, the Kassite king of Babylon, echoing the past when Kadashman-Turgu had proposed to combat Ramesses II. The Hittite king encouraged the Babylonian to focus his opposition on another adversary, likely the Assyrian king, whose allies had previously assassinated an Egyptian envoy. Ḫattušili’s correspondence was aimed at preserving the alliance between the Canaanite provinces under Egyptian control and Mursili III, against potential threats from Assyria.

Biblical Archaeology: Who Were the Hittites?

Ramesses II’s Military Engagements: Nubian and Libyan Campaigns

Nubian Campaigns

Ramesses II’s military endeavors extended south beyond the first cataract of the Nile into Nubia, a region under Egyptian control for 200 years by his reign. When Ramesses was approximately 22 years old, he led a campaign into this area, accompanied by two of his sons, including Amun-her-khepeshef. This campaign and its significance were commemorated in the decorations of several temples built by Ramesses II in Northern Nubia, such as those at Beit el-Wali, Gerf Hussein, and Kalabsha.

Part of Gerf Hussein temple, originally in Nubia

One notable depiction at the Beit el-Wali temple shows Ramesses II charging into battle on a war chariot against local tribes south of Egypt, with his sons, Amun-her-khepsef and Khaemwaset, depicted behind him in their own chariots, indicating their active participation in the campaign. Moreover, an inscription in one of these temples narrates an instance where Ramesses had to engage in battle without the support of his troops, underscoring the personal risk and leadership he demonstrated during these military actions.

Libyan Campaigns

Along the Mediterranean coast, the influence of Ramesses II stretched at least 300 kilometers to Zawyet Umm El Rakham, where remains of a fortress have been discovered. The texts associated with this site describe it as being constructed on Libyan land, suggesting a significant Egyptian presence and control over this region during his reign.

Wall Painting of the Temple of Beit El-Wali, which Ramses II constructed in Nubia, British Museum

While detailed accounts of large-scale military campaigns against the Libyans during Ramesses II’s time are sparse, there are records from early in his reign that mention generalized victories over the Libyans. These records might reflect Ramesses’s participation in his father Seti I’s campaigns rather than his own independent military actions. The Aswan Stele from his second year possibly alludes to this continuity of military activity. It seems that Seti I, not Ramesses II, was primarily responsible for establishing the extensive network of coastal defenses, much like he restored the “Ways of Horus” across Northern Sinai, indicating a strategic approach to regional security and control initiated by his father and continued under his own rule.

These campaigns highlight not only the military might of Ramesses II but also his strategic foresight in securing and stabilizing Egypt’s borders through direct military engagements and the establishment of defensive structures. The involvement of his sons in these endeavors also points to a dynastic approach to leadership and military training, preparing the next generation for their future roles as leaders of Egypt.

Ramses II: Building Projects and Monuments

Architectural Initiatives

Ramses II, known for his extensive building programs, left a significant mark on Egypt’s landscape, underscoring his reign as one of the most architecturally transformative periods in ancient Egyptian history. His construction projects spanned across Egypt, from the Delta to Nubia, with each structure reinforcing his divine legitimacy and eternal legacy.

Colossal Statue of Ramesses II in the first peristyle court at Luxor

Temples at Abu Simbel

Among the most ambitious of Ramses II’s architectural endeavors are the twin temples at Abu Simbel. These temples were carved out of a mountainside in southern Egypt near the Second Cataract of the Nile. The larger of the two is dedicated to Ramses himself, depicted as a god alongside deities such as Ra-Horakhty, Ptah, and Amun. The colossal statues that front the temple, each representing Ramses, stand over 20 meters high and serve as a formidable statement of his god-like status and power.

Inside, the temple aligns with the sun twice a year, on October 22 and February 22, dates thought to correspond with his coronation and his birthday, respectively. These solar events illuminate the inner sanctum, highlighting statues of Ramses and the gods, excluding only Ptah, a god connected with the underworld, who remains in darkness. This phenomenon demonstrates sophisticated understanding of solar patterns and reflects the intertwining of celestial mechanics with religious and royal symbolism.

Pi-Ramesses

Pi-Ramesses, Ramses II’s capital in the eastern Delta, was another monumental project. It served as both a political and military hub, strategically located on the banks of the Nile for easy access to the Mediterranean Sea. The city was famed for its opulence and size, reportedly filled with temples, palaces, and gardens. Pi-Ramesses was also a major chariotry hub, housing hundreds of chariots and horses, essential for maintaining Egyptian military might.

Archaeological excavations at the site have uncovered vast quantities of pottery, tools, and other artifacts that illustrate the daily life and bustling activity of the ancient capital. The city’s strategic and economic significance cannot be overstated, as it facilitated both trade routes and military expeditions.

Historical Examination of the Ramesseum: The Mortuary Temple of Ramses II

Architectural Overview and Historical Context

The Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Ramses II, situated between Qurna and the desert, epitomizes the grandeur of ancient Egyptian temple architecture and the ambition of its builders. Since its recognition in the 19th century and being named by Jean-François Champollion, it has drawn attention for its architectural complexity and the scale of its remnants.

The remains of the Ramesseum in aerial view

The temple, oriented northwest to southeast, unfolds through a series of monumental structures starting with two expansive courts. The entrance to the temple was marked by an imposing pylon that framed scenes of Ramses II’s military prowess, particularly his engagements at the Battle of Kadesh. The narrative on the pylon vividly portrays the pharaoh’s triumph over the Hittite forces, who are depicted in a state of retreat.

Adjacent to this pylon stood the royal palace on the left, creating a complex that served both religious and administrative functions. The rear of the first court was dominated by a colossal syenite statue of Ramses II, which, though now reduced to fragments of its base and torso, originally stood 17 meters high and weighed over 1,000 tonnes. This statue underscored the pharaoh’s authority and divine stature, symbolizing his eternal guardianship over the temple.

Artistic and Cultural Significance

Passing through the first court, visitors would enter the second court, where parts of the internal facade of the pylon and sections of the Osiride portico can still be seen. Here, the walls repeat the martial themes observed at the entrance, with additional scenes depicting the feast and honors dedicated to Min, the god of fertility, celebrating the pharaoh’s virility and divine favor.

The layout continues with a series of Osiride pillars and columns, remnants of which give a sense of the original scale and the aesthetic grandeur of the temple. Flanking the entrance to the temple were two statues of the seated king—one in pink granite and the other in black granite—serving as eternal sentinels to the sacred precinct.

Hypostyle Hall and Sanctuary

Central to the Ramesseum was the great hypostyle hall, measuring 41 meters by 31 meters, where 39 of the original 48 columns still stand. These columns are intricately decorated with scenes of Ramses II engaging with various deities, emphasizing his role as the earthly proxy of the gods. The ceiling of the hall, adorned with gold stars on a blue background, remains partially intact, evoking the celestial realm that the pharaoh was destined to join.

The sanctuary, consisting of three consecutive rooms, was a focal point for the most sacred rites. It featured a tetrastyle cell and was surrounded by eight columns, each richly adorned with symbolic decorations. Only the first room, with its astral-themed ceiling, and fragments of the second room survive, offering a glimpse into the spiritual core of the temple.

Adjacent Structures and Additional Facilities

Encircling the temple were extensive storerooms constructed from mud bricks, essential for the logistical support of the temple’s functions. Evidence of a scribal school within the temple grounds suggests a scholarly or educational role for the Ramesseum, indicating it was a center of learning and administration, not merely a religious site.

A smaller temple dedicated to Seti I, Ramses II’s father, once stood adjacent to the hypostyle hall. Though only the foundations remain, its proximity to the Ramesseum highlights the continuity and familial reverence within royal construction practices.

The Ramesseum stands as a testament to Ramses II’s ambition to immortalize his reign through stone and art. Its ruins offer invaluable insights into the religious, administrative, and educational life of ancient Egypt, reflecting the multifaceted role of temples in Egyptian society.

Cultural Significance of Construction

Ramses II’s construction projects were not solely for the living; they also ensured his worship and remembrance in posterity. Each temple, statue, and city built under his rule reinforced the image of Ramses as a god-king, a direct mediator between the divine realm and the people of Egypt. His building projects employed tens of thousands, from laborers to artisans, impacting the economy and societal structure of ancient Egypt significantly.

These monumental constructions also played a crucial role in the religious life of the Egyptians, as temples were centers of worship and economic activity, housing priests, officials, and workers. The temples, laden with inscriptions and reliefs, were designed to propagate the divine nature of the pharaoh’s rule, linking Ramses directly with the gods, thereby justifying his reign in both religious and political spheres.

Each of these projects, whether temples, cities, or monumental statues, were designed to project the power, piety, and eternal legacy of Ramses II, securing his place in history as one of Egypt’s most prolific builders.

Ramses II: Architectural and Archaeological Legacies in Nubia and Beyond

Abu Simbel: A Monumental Legacy

In 1255 BCE, Ramses II, alongside Queen Nefertari, inaugurated one of ancient Egypt’s most awe-inspiring monuments—the great temple at Abu Simbel. Carved directly into the mountainside overlooking the Nile in Nubia, the temple complex was designed to solidify Ramses’ deity status among the Egyptian pantheon and to symbolize his eternal guardianship over the conquered Nubian region. The larger temple features four colossal statues of Ramses II at its entrance, each standing over 20 meters tall, designed to convey his power and divine nature to all who passed by.

Facade of the Great Temple at Abu Simbel

The discovery of Abu Simbel in 1813 by Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, and its subsequent unearthing from the sands by Giovanni Battista Belzoni in 1817, marked a significant moment in Egyptology, revealing the artistic and engineering prowess of ancient Egypt. The temple’s alignment with the sun—where the inner sanctum lights up twice a year, on Ramses’ birthday and coronation day—demonstrates an advanced understanding of astronomy.

Ramses II’s Other Nubian Monuments

Beyond Abu Simbel, Ramses II commissioned several other significant constructions in Nubia, showcasing his military campaigns and religious devotion. The Temple of Beit el-Wali, now relocated to New Kalabsha near Aswan, is adorned with reliefs depicting his victories in Nubia and interactions with local deities, underscoring his role as both conqueror and religious patron.

Additional temples at Derr and Gerf Hussein, also moved to New Kalabsha, continue this narrative, with each structure serving as a testament to Ramses’ ambition to integrate Nubian territories culturally and spiritually into the Egyptian empire. The temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, although initiated during the reign of Thutmose III, was significantly enhanced under Ramses II, further indicating his commitment to religious expansion.

Granite statue of Ramesses II from Thebes. Currently on display at the Museo Egizio in Turin

Recent Archaeological Discoveries

The archaeological footprint of Ramses II extends beyond Nubia, with significant findings within Egypt itself. In 1955, a colossal 83-tonne statue of Ramses II, originally found in six pieces at a temple near Memphis, was reconstructed and erected in Cairo. In 2006, to protect it from environmental damage, it was moved closer to the site of the future Grand Egyptian Museum.

In Cairo’s Matariya neighborhood in 2018, archaeologists discovered fragments of a structure believed to be a royal booth used by Ramses II. This find included a base that likely supported the king’s seat during public ceremonies, such as the Sed festival—a ritual of renewal for the pharaoh. Accompanying this were various artifacts including scarabs, amulets, and blocks with hieroglyphic inscriptions, shedding light on the ceremonial aspects of Ramses’ reign.

In December 2019, a rare red granite bust of Ramses II was unearthed in Mit Rahina, Giza. This bust, significant for its depiction of Ramses wearing a wig with the Ka symbol—representing the pharaoh’s life force—is unique for its material and craftsmanship. The site also revealed limestone blocks illustrating Ramses during the Heb-Sed ritual, emphasizing the importance of this rite in asserting the king’s continued vigor and legitimacy to rule.

Implications of These Discoveries

Each of these archaeological sites and discoveries provides critical insights into Ramses II’s reign. Whether through monumental temple complexes or intricate statuary, Ramses II sought to immortalize his rule and divine stature across Egypt and Nubia. These findings not only highlight his architectural and religious influence but also his strategic use of art and architecture to project power and piety, ensuring his legacy in the annals of Egyptian history.

The Final Days of Ramses II: Death, Burial, and Preservation

Circumstances of Death

Ramses II, one of Egypt’s most formidable pharaohs, ruled for an astonishing 66 years, dying in 1213 BCE at the age of approximately 90. His reign, marked by significant military, architectural, and cultural achievements, ended as he succumbed to the infirmities of old age, which included severe dental problems and arthritis, as evidenced by examinations of his mummy.

Burial in the Valley of the Kings

Following ancient Egyptian royal customs, Ramses II was buried in the Valley of the Kings, an elaborate burial site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. His tomb, KV7, was constructed to safeguard his journey into the afterlife, a deeply ingrained belief in Egyptian spiritual practice. The tomb’s design followed the convention of the New Kingdom royal tombs, consisting of a series of corridors descending into the earth, leading to the burial chamber. This chamber, once housing the sarcophagus, was decorated with vivid wall paintings and inscriptions from religious texts, intended to guide and protect the pharaoh in the afterlife.

Despite the grandeur intended for his final resting place, like many royal tombs of the period, KV7 was subject to looting in antiquity, which stripped it of treasures and left it in a state of disarray. This looting significantly impacted the archaeological context and the amount of direct historical data that could be gleaned about the burial specifics and rituals employed.

Discovery and Study of the Mummy

The mummy of Ramses II presents one of the most significant finds in the study of ancient Egyptian rulers. It was rediscovered in 1881 in the Deir el-Bahri cache, within the TT320 tomb, where it had been relocated from KV7 by priests during the Third Intermediate Period to protect it from theft. This cache was a secret repository intended to safeguard royal mummies from grave robbers, containing several New Kingdom pharaohs alongside Ramses II.

In 1974, Ramses II’s mummy was subjected to a detailed examination that revealed his physical characteristics at the time of his death. The pharaoh was about 1.7 meters tall, had red hair, and showed signs of severe dental issues and arthritis, which would have caused him significant pain in his later years. These examinations provided invaluable insights into his health, lifestyle, and the medical challenges he faced.

The Mummy’s International Journey

In a groundbreaking event in 1976, Ramses II’s mummy traveled to France for conservation treatment. This journey was necessitated by the deteriorating condition of the mummy, threatened by fungal infections and the general decay of time. The mummy underwent extensive preservation procedures at the Museum of Man in Paris, where it was treated with the utmost care to stabilize its condition and ensure its preservation for future generations.

Ramesses II was issued an Egyptian passport in 1975 when his mummy left the country for antifungal cleaning in France.

During this time, legal documents were prepared to provide Ramses II with a passport, listing his occupation as “King (deceased).” This event highlighted the international cultural and historical significance of the pharaoh, transcending national boundaries and showcasing the global interest in and respect for ancient Egyptian civilization.

Preservation Efforts and Continuing Research

The preservation of Ramses II’s mummy is emblematic of the broader efforts to understand and protect Egypt’s historical legacy. Ongoing research and conservation efforts continue to provide insights into his life, reign, and the medical knowledge of ancient Egypt. Such studies are critical not only for historical accuracy but also for understanding the broader human story told through the lives of its most iconic figures.

Ramses II’s death, burial, and the subsequent odyssey of his mummy form a compelling narrative about ancient Egyptian burial practices, the quest for immortality through monumental burial sites, and the modern scientific endeavor to preserve and understand the past. Each aspect of his mummification and burial reflects the complexities and grandeur of ancient Egyptian culture and its lasting impact on the world.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is the CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored more than 220 books and is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).