The Babylonian Empire—The Bible’s Third World Power

Babylonia, located in the southern part of Mesopotamia, refers to several ancient kingdoms that thrived particularly in the 7th and 6th centuries BC, with Babylon as their capital, a name meaning “gate of god.” Today, this region is part of southeastern Iraq. The term “Babylonian” can loosely describe the land, its people, the kingdom, its subjects, or even a dialect of the major ancient Mesopotamian languages.

Geography of Babylonia

The geography of Babylonia is primarily defined by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which originate in the mountains of eastern Turkey. Though these rivers initially flow in opposite directions, they converge near Baghdad and eventually flow together into the Persian Gulf. The southern part of this area, known historically as Sumer, and the northern as Akkad, recognizes the two key civilizations that developed there before Babylonia’s emergence as a power.

Political Landscape

Politically, the boundaries of Babylonia generally matched the geographic region known as Babylonia. The political centers of Babylonia were situated along the banks of the Euphrates and its tributaries rather than in the fertile plains lying between the two rivers. Occasionally, the kingdom expanded eastward beyond the Tigris into the flatlands and foothills of the Zagros Mountains, mainly along the eastern tributaries of the Tigris. The cultural and political influence of Babylonia stretched upstream along both the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, reaching as far as Mari on the Euphrates and Asshur on the Tigris.

The Rise of Babylonia: Influence of Sumer and Akkad (3200–2000 BC)

NOTE: Some of the dates recommended by sources that are in the early part of the article, I would disagree with. For example, the 3200 to 2900 BC below. Why? I follow literal Bible chronology, which has the flood of Noah dated to 2348 BC. So, all events below must fall after that.

Babylonia’s culture emerged through the influence of the Sumerian civilization on the diverse groups migrating into the region around 3200 to 2900 BC. The primary languages spoken in this area were Akkadian, a Semitic language, and Sumerian, whose linguistic origins remain a mystery. Sumerian speakers primarily resided between Nippur and the Persian Gulf, while Akkadian speakers lived north of Nippur in Babylonia. Initially, Sumerian customs dominated Babylonia, with incoming populations adapting to this established way of life. The earliest clear inscriptions from Babylonia, dating back to 3100 BC, are in Sumerian. This language was the main written medium across Mesopotamia for the next seven centuries, with its cuneiform script enduring nearly 3,000 years.

Over time, Akkadian cultural elements began to rival those of the Sumerians. This shift in dominance was marked by the rise of Sargon I (Sharru-kin, meaning “true king”; 2339–2279 BC), who founded the capital city, Akkad (or Agade), the exact location of which remains unknown today. The name Akkad later came to represent not only Sargon’s capital but also his kingdom, the language he spoke, and the broader region of northern Babylonia. Sargon was notable for building an empire; he conquered the Sumerian cities, extended his control to the northern Mesopotamian cities, and eventually marched along the Euphrates to dominate Syria.

The Akkadian empire flourished under Sargon and his successors (2334–2154 BC) but faced disruption from the Guti, a mountain-dwelling people from the east. The Sumerians, led by King Utuhegal of Uruk, eventually defeated the Guti, heralding a Sumerian resurgence in Babylonia. This resurgence, known as the “Neo-Sumerian empire of Ur” or the “Ur III period” (2112–2006 BC), was characterized by a revival of Sumerian power and cultural influence, centered in the historically significant city of Ur. However, the prominence of the Sumerians declined towards the end of the Ur III period, as evidenced by the increasing number of kings with Semitic names during the last quarter of this era.

The First Babylonian Kingdom: 1900–1600 BC

During this period, Semitic-speaking people from the west, known as the Amurru or Martu, nomads from Syria, began exerting migratory and military pressures on Babylonia.

Amorite Invasion

Historically referred to as “Amorites” after their language, these nomads were considered barbarians by the native Babylonians who disdained their way of life. The Amorites, sharing partial ancestry with the Akkadians, differed mainly in language and cultural aspects. By the reign of Shar-kali-sharri (2254–2230 BC), the fifth king of the Akkad dynasty, the Amorites started to pose a significant threat. Their major movements into Babylonia occurred first in the early Ur III period and again during the reign of the last two kings of the Ur III dynasty. This influx happened amid a complex political scenario that ultimately led to the fall of Sumerian power and the rise of the Babylonian kingdom under Amorite domination.

Fall of Ur

The last Neo-Sumerian king, Ibbi-Sin, faced threats from both east and west and internal rebellions. Ishbi-Erra, the vassal-governor of Mari, leveraged the Amorite incursions to revolt and establish a competing kingdom with its capital at Isin, near Ur. Simultaneously, in Larsa, close to Ur, another dynasty arose under an Amorite ruler. Local rulers and newcomers, though nominally vassals to Ibbi-Sin, began establishing their own “kingdoms” in their cities and surrounding territories. Overwhelmed, the Ur III dynasty collapsed under these pressures, and Ur was plundered fiercely. Although Isin and Larsa suffered, they outlasted Ur’s fall; however, neither managed to become the dominant power in Babylonia.

Rise of Babylon

After several rulers in Isin and Larsa, a second Amorite dynasty emerged, this time in Akkad at the city of Babylon, which was first mentioned during the Ur III period and now became a capital. This period saw three major dynasties dividing Sumer and Akkad, though numerous smaller kingdoms persisted, some under Amorite leadership. The “first dynasty of the Kingdom of Babylon” was founded by Sumuabum (1894–1881 BC). His reign, along with that of his four successors—Sumulael (1880–1845 BC), Sabium (1844–1831 BC), Apil-Sin (1830–1813 BC), and Sin-Muballit (1812–1793 BC)—was marked by a century of peace, focusing mainly on religious and defensive constructions and maintaining irrigation systems, although there were some conquests and territorial expansions. The kingdom of Babylon during this time extended about 50 miles from the capital in any direction. Hammurabi, the sixth king (1792–1750 BC), expanded the kingdom towards empire size, stretching from the Persian Gulf along the Tigris to Assyria and up the Euphrates to Mari. However, under Hammurabi’s son, Samsu-iluna (1749–1712 BC), the empire began to diminish, surviving another century but within narrower borders than those set by Sumuabum.

Minor Dynasties of Babylon: 1600–900 BC

The initial dynasty of Babylon came to an abrupt end around 1595 BC when the Hittites invaded and sacked the city. This event marked the beginning of a Babylonian dark age—a period lacking contemporary records, which persisted for over two centuries until around 1377 BC.

First Dark Age

During this obscure period, Babylon briefly came under the control of the Sealand dynasty, later recognized as the second dynasty of Babylon. This dynasty, originating from the southeastern extremities of Babylonia, is shrouded in mystery and was short-lived, lasting only about two years before fading into obscurity. Control of Babylon then shifted to the Kassites.

The Kassite Rule

The Kassites, originating from the Zagros Mountains in the east, had been gradually moving into Babylonia for centuries. First noted in a military context during the reign of Hammurabi’s successor, Samsu-iluna, the Kassites eventually settled in the Euphrates valley near Terqa. By as early as 1740 BC, they had established a dynasty of kings. Ultimately, they took over Babylon, forming the third dynasty and maintaining control for about four and a half centuries.

The Rise of the Elamites

While the Kassites faced challenges from the emerging powers of the Aramaeans and Assyrians in the northwest, their reign was eventually ended by the Elamites. Originating from east of the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Elamites conquered Babylon but were later either expelled or retreated. Following their departure, local princes from the city of Isin established the fourth dynasty of Babylon, also known as the second dynasty of Isin, which endured for more than a century from 1156 to 1025 BC.

Second Dark Age

The subsequent 50 years saw seven kings from the fifth, sixth, and seventh dynasties of Babylon. The fifth dynasty (1024–1004 BC), also called the second dynasty of the Sealand, was founded by a Kassite from the Sealand region. The sixth dynasty (1003–984 BC), known as the dynasty of Bazi or Bit Bazi (“bit” meaning “tribe”), was established by an Aramaean. The seventh dynasty (983–978 BC) was ruled by the Elamites and lasted only six years with a single ruler. These three dynasties, along with the longer-lasting eighth dynasty of Babylon (977–732 BC), were part of another dark age in Mesopotamian history. This era coincided with a general decline in power among Assyria, Egypt, and the Hittite kingdom between the 12th and 9th centuries, leading to a prolonged period of political instability and confusion. During this time, the Hebrew empire experienced its peak under Kings David and Solomon, flourishing without significant political obstacles.

Assyrian Domination: 900–614 BC

During this period, significant shifts occurred, particularly in the role and status of the Aramaeans, as Assyria reasserted its power. Four assertive and formidable kings—Adad-nirari II (911–891 BC), Tukulti-ninurta II (890–884 BC), Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC), and Shalmaneser III (858–824 BC)—aggressively expanded Assyrian influence north, east, and west. These rulers also managed to repel Aramaean tribes, many of which then migrated southward into Babylonia, settling between the lower Tigris and the frontier of Elam. Despite these pressures, the kings of the eighth dynasty of Babylon maintained their independence, though the balance of power remained precarious.

Rise of the Chaldeans

First noted in Assyrian records in the 9th century BC, the Kaldu, or Chaldeans, began a persistent rise to power that would eventually restore Babylonia’s former glory 250 years later. The Chaldeans originally inhabited the regions along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, from the Persian Gulf to the southernmost parts of Babylonia, an area characterized by swamps, lakes, and dense cane thickets. Economically and socially similar to the Aramaeans but distinct in ethnicity, the Chaldeans later adopted the Aramaic language and writing system. Their economy was primarily based on fishing, hunting, modest agriculture, and some cattle breeding.

Over time, the Chaldeans expanded from their initial territories along the rivers. With support in the form of arms and funding from neighboring Elam, the aggressive Yakin tribe—one of several in the area—began to challenge the government in Babylon. Known for their fierce independence and rural lifestyle, the Chaldeans were reluctant to pay taxes or perform services for Babylonia, recognizing allegiance only to their clan. This independence often led them to plunder neighboring cities and ambush caravans.

The precarious relationship between the rural Chaldeans and the urban-dwelling Babylonians was further destabilized by the intrusion of Assyrians and Elamites into Babylonian affairs. This external pressure exacerbated the internal tensions, highlighting the complex dynamics of power and ethnicity in the region.

Vassal Kingdom and Assyrian Influence in Babylonia

The earliest attempts by Assyria to influence Babylonia occurred under Shalmaneser III. In 851 BC, during a power struggle within the Babylonian royal family, Marduk-zakirshumi, the reigning king of Babylon’s 8th dynasty, faced a challenge from his brother, backed by the Aramaeans. To maintain his position, Marduk-zakirshumi sought assistance from the Assyrians. Shalmaneser III responded, defeating the challengers and subsequently entering Babylon. Despite his victory, Shalmaneser treated Babylon and its citizens with considerable respect and did not annex the region. He then continued south to Sumer, home to the Chaldeans, pushing them towards the Persian Gulf. For reasons not fully recorded, Shalmaneser refrained from making Babylonia part of his empire, allowing Mardukzakir-shumi to remain as king under Assyrian allegiance.

Shalmaneser III’s later years were marred by widespread revolts throughout the Assyrian empire. His son and successor, Shamshi-adad V, spent the majority of his rule (823–811 BC) quelling these uprisings. He managed to defeat Babylonia in battle twice, yet Babylonia preserved its independence. Following his reign, the next four Assyrian leaders (782–745 BC) proved ineffective, offering Babylonia an opportunity to strengthen its position; however, it failed to take advantage due to internal chaos.

Amidst this turmoil, two formidable leaders came to power. In Assyria, Tiglath-pileser III seized the throne in 745 BC, and in Babylonia, a Chaldean named Nabonassar ascended in 747 BC, becoming a successor king in the 8th dynasty. To solidify Nabonassar’s rule against Aramaean threats, Tiglath-pileser led a military expedition into Babylonia.

After Nabonassar’s death, an Aramaean chieftain named Nabu-mukin-zeri usurped the Babylonian throne in 731 BC, establishing the 9th dynasty of Babylon. Tiglath-pileser responded by defeating Nabu-mukin-zeri, devastating his tribe’s territory, and declaring himself king of both Babylon and Babylonia under the name Pulu (729–727 BC), making him the second king of the 9th dynasty. His short-lived successor, Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC), also held titles as king of both Babylon and Assyria. Under Shalmaneser V’s rule, Assyria began a siege against the kingdom of Israel after its king, Hoshea (732–723 BC), rebelled against Assyrian control, as chronicled in 2 Kings 17:1–6.

Merodach-baladan and the Assyrian Confrontations

Sargon II, who reigned from 722 to 705 BC, succeeded Shalmaneser V. His ascent to power is not well-documented, suggesting he might have been a usurper. This is hinted at by his choice of the name Sargon, meaning “true king,” a homage to an ancient Akkadian ruler. Around the time Sargon II ascended, Elam to the east began actively involving itself in Babylonian affairs by backing rebellions against Assyrian dominance. Elam supported the Aramaean sheiks in Babylonia with troops and weapons when they were threatened by Assyrian forces. In the same year that Sargon II became king, Merodach-baladan II from the Chaldean Yakin tribe, also supported by Elam, seized control of Babylon and declared himself king. Sargon II’s initial military response in 720 BC failed, allowing Merodach-baladan to maintain his rule over Babylonia for 11 years (721–710 BC).

Following the successes in his other military campaigns, Sargon II launched another assault on Babylon in 710 BC and successfully captured it. Although he proclaimed himself king of Babylon, he recognized Merodach-baladan as the ruler of the Yakin tribe. Meanwhile, Merodach-baladan established himself in Elam. When Sargon’s son, Sennacherib, took over the Assyrian throne in 705 BC, Merodach-baladan, with the support of Elamite forces, returned to power. He rallied the Aramaean and Chaldean populations against Assyria, reclaimed Babylon, and once again declared himself king in 705 BC.

During his brief return to power, Merodach-baladan sent an embassy to King Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 BC), bringing gifts and letters, ostensibly to express sympathy for the king’s illness (2 Kings 20:12). However, it is more likely that Merodach-baladan was seeking an alliance against Assyria. Hezekiah’s favorable reception of the envoys and his decision to show them his treasury indicated a willingness to cooperate, although this move was politically naive. This incident was sharply criticized by the prophet Isaiah, who prophesied that Judah would eventually be conquered by Babylonia, leading to the plundering of the treasury and the exile of the royal family (2 Kings 20:13–19; Isaiah 39).

Sennacherib swiftly responded by removing Merodach-baladan from power, forcing him into exile, and installing Belibni as the new king. Yet, within three years, Merodach-baladan was possibly involved in another uprising, perhaps even colluding with Bel-ibni, prompting another Assyrian military response. Despite these efforts, the spirit of Babylonian independence persisted. In 689 BC, supported again by the king of Elam, Babylon revolted. Sennacherib’s campaign faced significant resistance, and in his fury, he attacked and destroyed the city of Babylon, seizing its deities.

War and Peace Under Esar-haddon and Ashurbanipal

Esar-haddon, who ruled Assyria from 681 to 669 BC, ascended to the throne after a violent conflict with his brothers for succession. One of his initial actions as king was to rebuild and expand the city of Babylon, an endeavor that earned him the favor and support of many Babylonian subjects, allowing him a period of relative peace in that region of his empire. Three years before his death, Esar-haddon appointed his son Ashurbanipal as his successor to the Assyrian throne for the years 669 to 627 BC and another son, Shamash-shum-ukin, to act as the viceroy of Babylonia from 668 to 648 BC.

Upon Esar-haddon’s death, the transition of power occurred smoothly without dividing the empire, despite the presence of two sons in prominent positions. Ashurbanipal, overseeing the entire empire, held precedence over his brother Shamash-shum-ukin, who, though viceroy, enjoyed a significant degree of independence and ruled Babylonia with full authority. This arrangement functioned effectively for 17 years until Shamash-shum-ukin, supported by the Elamites and various Arab tribes, initiated a rebellion against Ashurbanipal.

The uprising led by Shamash-shum-ukin was fiercely quelled by 648 BC. In its aftermath, Ashurbanipal appointed a Chaldean noble named Kandalanu as the new Babylonian viceroy. Subsequently, Ashurbanipal embarked on a punitive campaign that ravaged Babylonia and led to the complete destruction of Elam. The final eight years of Ashurbanipal’s reign remain poorly documented, as Assyrian records from this period are sparse and provide little clarity on the events or the state of the empire towards the end of his rule.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire: 614–539 BC

After the deaths of Ashurbanipal and his viceroy Kandalanu in 627 BC, Babylonia lacked a recognized leader for a year. Then, in 625 BC, a Chaldean prince named Nabopolassar seized the throne, initiating the 10th dynasty of Babylon, also known as the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian dynasty. This marked the achievement of Babylonian independence from Assyrian control, though this triumph signaled the beginning of the end for Babylonia as it was the last dynasty to rule.

Nabopolassar, with the aid of Media—a kingdom on the Iranian plateau—dismantled the Assyrian empire. By 612 BC, major Assyrian cities including Asshur, Nineveh, and Nimrud had fallen. Assyria’s final defeat came in 609 BC under Nabopolassar’s leadership. His son, Nebuchadnezzar II (604–562 BC), inherited the vast Assyrian territories, briefly establishing Babylonia as the dominant power in the Near East. It was during Nebuchadnezzar’s reign that the Hebrew kingdom of Judah fell in 586 BC, leading to the destruction of Jerusalem and the Babylonian exile of its population, as recorded in 2 Kings 24:1–25:21.

Nebuchadnezzar transformed Babylon into a legendary city of luxury and grandeur. However, his pride and oppression led to his divine punishment of temporary insanity, where, according to the Book of Daniel, he lived like an animal outdoors, eating grass and letting his hair and nails grow wildly until he regained his humility and sanity.

Following Nebuchadnezzar, his son, son-in-law, and grandson each ruled briefly over the next six years. Then Nabonidus, a high official, took the throne from 555 to 539 BC. During this time, Cyrus II of Persia rose to power and rapidly expanded his empire across 3,000 miles, from the Aegean Sea to central Asia, beginning in 559 BC.

Meanwhile, Nabonidus spent much of his reign in Arabia, away from Babylon. The Book of Daniel, while recounting events of this period, never mentions Nabonidus by name but refers to his son Belshazzar as the acting king in his absence. Nabonidus’s prolonged absence and his devotion to the moon god Sin, rather than Babylon’s chief deity Marduk, eroded his support among the Babylonians. Upon his return to Babylon on the eve of Cyrus’s attack, rather than facing resistance, the Babylonian army defected to Cyrus, and the city surrendered without a fight on October 12, 539 BC, at 3:20 AM. This event marked the end of the Chaldean dynasty and the era of an independent Babylonia.

Modern Exploration of Babylon

The historical site of Babylon has fascinated many over the centuries, including the 12th-century traveler Benjamin of Tudela and the physician-naturalist Leonhart Rauwolff, who visited between 1573 and 1576. However, a more systematic era of exploration began with Carsten Niebuhr, who visited the ruins in 1765. Niebuhr attempted to identify notable landmarks such as the Hanging Gardens and the Temple of Belus (Marduk), drawing from the ancient accounts of Herodotus. Further contributions came from Abbé de Beauchamp, the pope’s vicar-general of Babylonia, who lived in Baghdad from 1782 to 1789 and made significant observations during his visits to Babylon.

In 1811, Claudius James Rich, a scholar employed by the East India Company, spent 10 days at Babylon, producing detailed descriptions, maps, drawings, and plans. The French government later sponsored an archaeological expedition from 1852 to 1854, led by Fulgence Fresnel with assistance from Assyriologist Jules Oppert and architect Felix Thomas, though their findings were minimal.

A major breakthrough in understanding Babylon came with the excavations conducted by Robert Koldewey for the German Oriental Society starting in 1899. Koldewey’s work revealed that Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon was the largest city of the ancient world, encompassing about 2,500 acres. He discovered that the older part of the city was fortified by two walls constructed from unbaked mud bricks. The inner and thicker wall, over 21 feet wide, was complemented by a military road 23 feet wide separating it from the outer wall, which was also substantial at over 12 feet thick. Massive fortified towers buttressed the walls at roughly 65-foot intervals, and a wide moat, in places over 200 feet across, lay outside the walls.

During the reigns of Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar, an additional wall was constructed to enclose areas to the southeast and northeast of the older city. This newer 80-foot thick wall, buttressed by towers every 130 feet, resembled the descriptions by Herodotus and featured an innovative structure with an inner wall of unbaked bricks, an outer wall of baked bricks, and rubble filling in between. A moat 300 feet wide, fed by the Euphrates River, ran alongside this newer wall.

Among the significant discoveries was the Ishtar Gate, a majestic double gateway standing 40 feet high and adorned with enameled brick reliefs depicting 575 bulls and dragons in vibrant colors. This gate led to the Procession Way, a road lined with three-foot square limestone slabs and walls covered with enameled bricks showcasing 120 lions symbolizing Ishtar. The road, attributed to Nebuchadnezzar through an inscription, led directly to the temple of Marduk and its adjacent ziggurat.

Koldewey’s efforts also uncovered the citadel, the market area, and Nebuchadnezzar’s palace. Further excavations were carried out by the German Archaeological Institute starting in 1956, continuing to uncover the rich history of this ancient city.

A significant amount of archaeological work has continued in the region, contributing further to our understanding of the ancient city. For example, Robert Koldewey’s earlier excavations in Babylon were foundational, but they were followed up by additional seasons of work conducted by the German Archaeological Institute starting in 1956. These efforts aimed to uncover more about the vast historical landscape of Babylon.

More recently, Babylon has continued to attract archaeological interest, although the exact details and findings from the latest excavations aren’t specified in the immediate search results. However, the ongoing interest in Babylon highlights its importance as a key site for understanding Mesopotamian civilizations and the broader ancient Near East. The area remains a focal point for archaeological teams aiming to uncover further insights into its complex history and the civilizations that once thrived there.

The Iraq War had a devastating impact on the cultural heritage of Iraq, resulting in significant losses of irreplaceable treasures. During the conflict and its aftermath, widespread looting occurred at many historical sites and museums, including the Iraq National Museum in Baghdad, which saw thousands of artifacts stolen or destroyed. Notably, the museum lost items such as the Vase of Warka and the Mask of Warka, although some of these items were later recovered and returned​ (Middle East Eye)​.

The damage extended beyond looting. The use of historical sites like Babylon as military bases by US and Polish troops led to further destruction, described by UNESCO as a “grave encroachment” on one of the world’s most important archaeological sites. This misuse severely compromised the site’s integrity, leading to significant structural damage​ (Middle East Eye)​.

Furthermore, the Islamic State (ISIS) capitalized on the chaos, destroying numerous cultural sites and using the smuggling of antiquities as a major funding source for their operations. This not only included the direct destruction of monuments but also the looting and illegal sale of cultural artifacts on a massive scale, which some estimates suggest was the second-highest revenue generator for the group after oil smuggling​ (MERIP)​.

These events underline the vulnerability of cultural heritage during times of conflict and the long-lasting impact of such destruction on historical understanding and cultural identity. The international community has seen ongoing efforts to recover and restore what has been lost, but the scars of these actions remain a poignant reminder of the cultural costs of war​ (isac.uchicago)​.

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