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Unearth the secrets of the City of David Archaeological Site, an indispensable treasure trove for anyone interested in Biblical history. Located just steps away from Old Jerusalem, the site offers a unique glimpse into Ancient Israel, its kings, prophets, and pivotal events. Visit and connect the ancient stones with the Scriptural accounts.

The City of David: An Ancient Stronghold of Strategic Importance

The “City of David” is the name designated to the “stronghold of Zion” after it was seized from the Jebusites. This area is understood to be a spur or ridge that extends southward from Mount Moriah, situated to the south of Solomon’s later temple site. Presently, this southern plateau is considerably lower than Mount Moriah due to extensive quarrying, particularly around 135 C.E. during Emperor Hadrian’s reign and the construction of the Roman city Aelia Capitolina. However, in antiquity, its elevation was more comparable to Mount Moriah, albeit still below the temple’s site.

Geographical Advantages for Defense

One of the most striking features of the City of David is its natural defenses. The location is guarded by deep valleys on three sides: the Tyropoeon Valley to the west and the Kidron Valley to the east, both converging at the Valley of Hinnom at the southern tip of the spur. This geography meant that significant fortification was only necessary to the north. Interestingly, at this northern boundary, the ridge becomes even narrower, thus making any military advances extremely challenging. Although the exact limits of the northern boundary are yet to be conclusively determined, many scholars suggest that the aforementioned narrow area is a likely candidate.

Topographical Changes Over Time

Over the course of several centuries, debris has accumulated in these valleys, diminishing the once-clear strategic advantages of the City of David’s location. Nonetheless, estimates indicate that the area of the ancient City of David likely spanned approximately 10 to 15 acres.

The Gihon Spring and Archaeological Findings

In the Kidron Valley, at the base of the spur’s eastern side, lies a spring known as Gihon. This spring had strategic importance, as indicated by archaeological excavations which reveal a tunnel linked to a shaft cut through the rock. This construction allowed the city’s inhabitants to access water without venturing beyond the city walls. This is particularly noteworthy because it’s believed that Joab and his troops may have utilized this shaft as an entry point to infiltrate and capture the stronghold.

These geographical and historical details underline the strategic importance and intricate planning behind the ancient City of David, making it an enduring subject of scholarly interest.

David’s Royal Residence: The City of David

The term “City of David” originated when David made this location his royal residence after governing Hebron for seven and a half years. Contributing to its status, David built his “house of cedars” with materials supplied by Hiram of Tyre. Importantly, David also relocated the Ark of the Covenant to this city, making it a focal point of spiritual life. Michal, David’s wife, could witness the Ark’s procession from a window in their residence. In accordance with royal tradition, David and numerous subsequent Davidic kings were buried here.

From Solomon’s Reign Onward: Evolving Importance

Under Solomon, the Ark was moved to the newly constructed temple on the elevated Mount Moriah, situated to the north of the City of David. Initially, Solomon housed his Egyptian queen in the City of David. However, he later moved her closer to the temple grounds, recognizing the area’s sacredness due to the Ark’s former presence. Both Solomon and his successor Hezekiah carried out significant construction and repair works, notably for defense against Assyrian threats. Notably, Hezekiah redirected the Gihon spring waters to the City of David, presumably via the discovered rock-cut tunnel connecting it with the Pool of Siloam. Manasseh, his son, added an outer wall on the eastern slope, facing the Kidron Valley.

The City of David: A Distinct Sector

It is evident from Scriptural accounts that despite the expansion of Jerusalem over time, the City of David remained a distinct and significant sector. This distinction persisted even after the Babylonian exile, as evident in the role the city played in wall repairs. Certain features, such as “The Stairway of the City of David,” have been confirmed through excavations, attesting to the city’s historical and structural intricacy.

The New Testament Reference: David’s City as Bethlehem

In the New Testament, notably in Greek manuscripts, the term “David’s city” is applied to Bethlehem, linking this birthplace of both David and Jesus Christ to the legacy of the City of David.

The City of David: An Archaeological and Biblical Landmark

The City of David, known in Hebrew as Īr Davīd and locally as Wadi Hilweh in Arabic, is an archaeological site widely recognized as the initial core settlement of Jerusalem during the Bronze and Iron Ages. This site is strategically situated on the southern portion of the eastern ridge of ancient Jerusalem. Specifically, it lies west of the Kidron Valley and east of the Tyropoeon Valley and is immediately south of the Temple Mount.

The Stepped Stone Structure is the name given to the remains at a particular archaeological site (sometimes termed Area G) on the eastern side of the City of David, the oldest part of Jerusalem. The curved, 60-foot-high (18 m), narrow stone structure is built over a series of terraces (hence the name). A casemate wall adjoins the structure from a northerly direction at the upper levels, and may have been the original city wall.

Significance in Biblical Archaeology

The City of David holds immense importance in the realm of biblical archaeology. Excavations have uncovered a defensive network around the Gihon Spring that dates back to the Middle Bronze Age. Intriguingly, this defensive network remained in use over various subsequent eras. Additionally, the site has revealed two monumental Iron Age structures—known as the Large Stone Structure and the Stepped Stone Structure. The dating and identification of these structures are subjects of scholarly debate; some propose they may be linked to David himself, while others argue they could belong to a later period.

Hezekiah’s Preparations and New Findings

The site also features the Siloam Tunnel, commonly hypothesized to have been constructed by Hezekiah in the late 8th century BCE in anticipation of an Assyrian attack. However, recent excavations suggest the tunnel may have an earlier origin, potentially dating to the late 9th or early 8th century BCE. Further contributing to the site’s historical richness are remains from the early Roman period, which include the Pool of Siloam and the Stepped Street, leading from the pool to the Temple Mount.

Current Management and Controversial Location

Today, the excavated portions of this archaeological site are included in the Jerusalem Walls National Park and managed by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. The operation of the site is carried out by the Ir David Foundation. The City of David is situated in Wadi Hilweh, which serves as an extension of the Palestinian neighborhood of Silwan in East Jerusalem. This location intertwines it with an Israeli settlement, adding another layer of complexity to its historical and political significance.

Excavations and Scholarly Views on the City of David

The archaeological consensus holds that the City of David is located on an elongated spur facing north-south, extending beyond the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. Specifically, it is situated to the south of the Old City’s southeastern corner, along the southern part of the eastern ridge, adjacent to the Gihon Spring. The area of the City of David spans about 50 dunams (approximately 12.3 acres).

The Biblical City of David in the period of Herod’s Temple, from the Holyland Model of Jerusalem. The southern wall of the Temple Mount appears at top.

Historical Context and Development

The settlement of this area began in the Chalcolithic period and the Early Bronze Age. The focus of the settlement was built-up around a natural spring, although it wasn’t known by the name City of David at that time. After David’s conquest of Jerusalem, the area previously known as Jebus was renamed the “City of David.” David’s son Solomon further expanded the city by extending its northern wall and adding the area of the Temple Mount, where he constructed the Temple. Starting from the eighth century BCE, the city expanded westward.

Debates and Early Excavations

The debate about whether this site could be identified as the biblical City of David started in the late 19th century with the work of archaeologists like Charles Warren and Hermann Guthe. Later, Louis-Hugues Vincent and Montagu Brownlow Parker’s work between 1909–11 identified the earliest traces of settlement, dating back to the Bronze Age.

The Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF), established in 1865, aimed to locate the City of David and report its findings. Despite 130 years of research, some targets, such as the location of the tombs of David and Solomon or the Ophel, remain unknown.

Topographical map of Jerusalem showing the approximate location of the “City of David” site

Recent Discoveries and Ongoing Research

The City of David is among the most excavated sites in Israel. Researchers of Near Eastern history have regularly participated in digs here. More recent excavations between 2000–2008 were conducted by R. Reich and E. Shukron on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority. They focused on Iron Age II findings near the Gihon spring. Even more recent digs by the Israel Antiquities Authority have confirmed the site dates back to the Iron Age II and extends to the Early Roman period.

Contemporary Scholarly Views

According to mainstream scholarship, opinions on the historicity of the biblical narrative about a united monarchy under David are divided. Some scholars affirm its historical basis, others deny it, and some acknowledge a historical core but believe that the Hebrew Bible embellishes the account for theological reasons. The view that the City of David should be located on the Temple Mount, as held by Finkelstein, Koch & Lipschits in 2011, has largely been rejected.

Archaeological Outline of the City of David

Overview

The City of David is one of the most intensively excavated archaeological sites in the Holy Land. The practice of archaeology here has sparked controversy due to accusations related to political and corporate motivations, questionable field practices, and interpretations that have been considered by some to be skewed.

Location and Topography

The site is strategically located on a narrow ridge extending southward from the Temple Mount. This ridge is naturally defended by the Central or Tyropoeon Valley to its west, the Hinnom Valley to its south, and the Kidron Valley to its east. It is currently situated within the predominantly Arab neighborhood of Wadi Hilweh, part of Silwan in East Jerusalem.

Unexcavated ruins of a house in the City of David (Silwan)

Bronze and Iron Age

The area is believed to have been the site of a walled city as far back as the Bronze Age, a period which predates Israelite rule. During this time, the area would have enjoyed significant defensive advantages due to its topography. In the pre-Israelite period, the site was separated from the future location of the Temple Mount by the Ophel, which was an uninhabited area until it became a seat of government under Israelite rule.

Monumental stone structure of the Proto-Aeolic style unearthed in the City of David (Givati Parking Lot)

Findings from the 2014 Givati parking lot excavations indicate that there was no fortified city wall in the City of David during the Iron IIA period (c. 1000–925 BCE). This time frame aligns with the traditionally proposed reigns of David, Solomon, and Rehoboam.

Stepped structure unearthed at the ancient City of David (Jerusalem)

During the reign of Hezekiah (c. 715-686 BCE), the city walls were expanded westward to encompass an area that extends across the Central Valley from both the City of David and the Temple Mount. This expansion enclosed what was previously an unwalled suburb, now recognized as the Western Hill of the Old City.

Exploration

The journey of archaeological discovery in this significant area began in the 19th century with Charles Warren’s 1867 excavation, funded by the Palestine Exploration Fund. Warren initially focused on the region south of the Temple Mount where he uncovered considerable fortifications. Intrigued, he continued his work and found what appeared to be a vertical shaft connected to a slanted tunnel leading to a water source. Though this shaft is today called “Warren’s Shaft,” his initial interpretation—suggesting that the shaft was a man-made feature serving the 10th-century BCE city of David—has been subject to later revisions.

Archaeological work in the area has persisted over time, with multiple digs currently in progress. For those interested, complete chronological lists of the excavations, dating back to the Late Ottoman, British Mandate, Jordanian, and early Israeli periods, can be accessed through the website of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA).

In the early 2010s, exploration continued with substantial contributions from archaeologists such as Rina Avner, Eliahu Shukron, and Ronny Reich under the auspices of the IAA. In the years 2012–2013, Joseph (Joe) Uzziel and Yuval Gadot led teams that conducted detailed surveys of the area. This endeavor was furthered in 2014 with surveys led by Uzziel and Nahshon Szanton.

Dating

Initiated in 2017, the project called “Setting the Clock in the City of David” aims to bring precision to the chronology of Jerusalem. Headed by Yuval Gadot of Tel Aviv University, along with Elisabetta Boaretto from the Weizmann Institute of Science and Joe Uziel and Doron Ben Ami from the IAA, the project seeks to use carbon-14 dating to clarify the timelines related to various sites. Until the initiation of this project, only a handful of reliable carbon-14 dates existed for the city’s archeological findings. Gadot notably states that the existing chronology of Jerusalem is founded upon “an assumption on an assumption on an assumption.” This project has so far yielded published studies concerning the Gihon Spring Tower and Wilson’s Arch.

The Siloam inscription or Shiloah inscription known as KAI 189, is a Hebrew inscription found in the Siloam tunnel which brings water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam, located in the City of David in East Jerusalem neighborhood of Shiloah or Silwan. The inscription records the construction of the tunnel, which has been dated to the 8th century BCE on the basis of the writing style. It is the only known ancient inscription from ancient Israel and Judah which commemorates a public construction work, despite such inscriptions being commonplace in Egyptian and Mesopotamian archaeology.

Archaeological Sites

The site includes several water tunnels, one built by King Hezekiah that still carries water. There are various pools, such as the Pool of Siloam mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments. Scholars anticipate the discovery of the remains of the Acra, a fortress built by Antiochus Epiphanes. Eilat Mazar, a City of David archaeologist, believes she has discovered a “Large Stone Structure,” which she tentatively dates to the tenth to ninth century BCE. It is thought to be King David’s palace. Nearby, bullae bearing names of officials mentioned in the Book of Jeremiah were found.

The Gihon Spring

Located on the eastern slope of Jerusalem’s southeastern hill, also known as the City of David, the Gihon Spring was a key reason for the city’s initial development. A massive town wall discovered above the spring helps in identifying the ancient settlement’s location. The spring is connected to various ancient water systems:

The Spring Tower
Warren’s Shaft
The Siloam Channel
The Siloam Tunnel
The Siloam Pool

The Giv’ati Parking Lot Excavations

The excavation site, covering around 5 dunams (1.2 acres), reveals several structures:

The Large Stone Structure: Eilat Mazar believes this structure, dating to the tenth to ninth century BCE, is part of a large public building.
The Stepped Stone Structure: This is a curved, 60-foot-high stone structure, possibly a Jebusite ramp or a retaining wall.

City Structures

Various other findings include city walls and towers, houses, a columbarium, rock-cut vaulted tunnels, and a rock-cut pool where the Theodotus Inscription was found.

The Jerusalem Water Channel

Archaeologists Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron date this central drainage channel to the Second Temple period. It runs down the Tyropoeon Valley and once drained the city of Jerusalem. Its description matches that in Josephus Flavius’ “The Wars of the Jews.”

History of Excavation

The water channel was first discovered by Charles Warren and Charles Wilson between 1867-1870 and rediscovered in 2007 by Reich and Shukron. They also uncovered a monumental stepped street, likely used by Second Temple-period pilgrims, built over the Jerusalem Water Channel.

The City of David and its surrounding areas are rich with archaeological findings that confirm and illuminate our understanding of biblical accounts. With ongoing excavations, it is likely that more discoveries will continue to shed light on the historical context of Scripture.

The King’s Garden in the Hebrew Bible (Excavated in 1894–1897 by Bliss and Dickie).

The King’s Garden, known in Hebrew as Gan HaMelekh, is a location mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in Nehemiah 3:15 and 2 Kings 25:4. This area is associated by some biblical archaeologists with the Al-Bustan neighborhood in the Silwan area of East Jerusalem. Scripture specifically mentions this garden in several texts, including 2 Kings 25:4, Jeremiah 39:4, and Nehemiah 3:15. There is also a possible reference to the area in Zechariah 14:10, which mentions “the royal winepresses.”

Location

The King’s Garden is believed to be situated at the confluence of the Kidron and Central (also known as Tyropoeon) valleys. The site is unique for its year-round flowing water, primarily supplied by the nearby Gihon Spring, making it conducive to the constant growth of vegetation and agriculture. This area is nourished by water runoff from the Pool of Siloam and is abundant in fruit trees today.

Hezekiah’s Tunnel, a significant engineering feat of antiquity, redirected water from the Gihon Spring, providing a more stable water supply to the area. The tunnel was a development that built upon earlier irrigation systems, which could have included canals and side openings to guide the flow of water.

Kidron Valley Sections

The Kidron Valley, which bisects the Silwan area, was traditionally divided by its inhabitants into three sections proceeding from north to south:

Wady Sitti Mariam (Valley of My Lady Mary)
Wady Fer’aun (Pharaoh’s Valley)
Wady Eyûb (Valley of Job)

According to Charles Warren, an explorer associated with the Palestine Exploration Fund, the term “Wady Fer’aun” refers to the valley of the king, aligning closely with the biblical location of the King’s Garden.

Archaeological Findings

The road that traverses the King’s Garden is constructed over a robust wall dating back to the Second Temple period. This wall serves as a dam-like structure that formed the ancient Pool of Siloam, known in Arabic as Birket al-Ḥamrah. Excavations conducted by F.J. Bliss and A.C. Dickie from 1894 to 1897 revealed remnants of this wall along with other archaeological finds dating back to the Bronze Age.

Note: The claim that “the exact location and nature of the biblical garden are not known and there are no archeological or other findings in al-Bustan to suggest that this is in fact the location” is an assertion that reflects the ongoing debate and investigative work in the field of biblical archaeology. While Al-Bustan is considered a candidate for the biblical King’s Garden, it remains an area of scholarly discussion.

The King’s Garden and Its Historical Context

The King’s Garden is mentioned in the context of King Zedekiah’s attempted escape from Jerusalem during the Chaldean siege. Located likely just outside the southeastern wall of the city, this area is documented in both 2 Kings 25:4 and Nehemiah 3:15. The garden’s proximity to the city walls and its mention in relation to Zedekiah’s escape provide valuable insights into its possible geographical location and historical significance.

Note: Given the garden’s mention in the context of Zedekiah’s flight, its geographical placement is of particular interest to biblical archaeologists, offering a potential focal point for further research and excavation.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).