The Concrete Archaeological Evidence of Israel in Canaan: The Merneptah Stele

Delve into the captivating discovery of the Merneptah Stele, an ancient Egyptian monument that represents the earliest reference to the Israelites. Learn how this archaeological find deepens our understanding of the Israelites’ historical presence in Canaan during the reign of Pharaoh Merneptah.

Among the earliest tangible archaeological testimonies affirming Israel’s tangible presence in Canaan stands the Merneptah Stele, currently residing in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Unearthed in 1896 in the age-old city of Thebes in Egypt, this engraved stone monument dates back to the period of 1211-1208 BCE. It coincides with the reign of the Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah, often spelled as Merenptah, and narrates several of his military campaigns, including a noteworthy mention of a campaign against Canaan where Merneptah purports to have defeated Israel.

In this historical context, the Egyptian denotation of “Israel” typically represents an ethnic group, as opposed to a region or city. This representation aligns well with the account given in the book of Judges, where the Israelites, at that point, were not yet centralized around a principal capital city. The inscription thus provides compelling confirmation of the Israelites’ existence in Canaan by the period of 1211-1208 BCE.

In the annals of Biblical archaeology, few artifacts resonate with the significance of the Merneptah Stele. Discovered in Egypt in the late 19th century, this ancient relic holds the distinction of being the earliest extra-biblical reference to the Israelites. Unearthed in the ruins of the ancient Egyptian capital of Thebes, the Merneptah Stele provides an intriguing glimpse into the relationship between Egypt and the ancient Israelites during the reign of Pharaoh Merneptah (1213-1203 BCE).

Merneptah, son of the renowned Ramesses II, left behind an account of his victories inscribed on a large slab of granite. While these victories span a range of locations, it is the mention of Israel that has sparked the interest of Biblical archaeologists and scholars around the world. The Merneptah Stele, also known as the Israel Stele, offers the first known reference to Israel as a people or nation, outside of the Bible.

The inscription, penned in Egyptian hieroglyphs, celebrates the triumphs of Pharaoh Merneptah during a campaign in Canaan towards the end of the 13th century BCE. The mention of Israel appears in a poetic verse, which reads, “Israel is laid waste, its seed is not.” This statement, while simple, carries significant implications, attesting to the existence of an established Israelite entity in the Land of Canaan by this time.

However, the reference to Israel is unique in the stele. Unlike the other entities mentioned – Ashkelon, Gezer, and Yanoam, which were referred to as city-states – Israel was designated with a unique hieroglyph indicating a nomadic or semi-nomadic group rather than an established city-state. This suggests that at this time, the Israelites were likely a group of tribes, perhaps settled in the highlands of Canaan.

The Merneptah Stele, also known as the Israel Stele or the Victory Stele of Merneptah, is an inscription by Merneptah, a pharaoh in Ancient Egypt who reigned from 1213 to 1203 BCE. Discovered by Flinders Petrie at Thebes in 1896, it is now housed at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Such historical context underscores the significance of the Merneptah Stele. Not only does it provide the earliest non-Biblical reference to the Israelites, but it also hints at their socio-political state during this era. This priceless artifact has therefore proven pivotal to our understanding of the Israelites’ early history, corroborating Biblical narratives with tangible archaeological evidence.

Despite the straightforward reading of the stele’s inscription, it has not been without controversy. Some scholars have questioned whether the term ‘Israel’ indeed refers to the Israelites of the Bible. Various interpretations have been proposed, some suggesting alternate readings of the hieroglyphic inscription. However, the consensus among Egyptologists remains that the most plausible interpretation of the term in question is indeed ‘Israel.’

While the Merneptah Stele is a single piece in the larger jigsaw puzzle of Biblical archaeology, its importance cannot be overstated. As the earliest known reference to the Israelites, it serves as a tangible link to the Bible’s narratives, lending credibility to the historicity of these ancient texts. Moreover, it provides a snapshot of a time in history when the children of Israel were emerging as a people in the land of Canaan, shedding light on the formation of the nation we read about in the Bible.

A Historic Testimony to Israel in Non-Biblical Text

Housed in Egypt’s Cairo Museum, a notable granite stela stands as a memorial to Pharaoh Merneptah’s victories. Scholars generally agree that Merneptah, Ramses II’s 13th son, reigned from approximately 1213 to 1203 BCE. This reign aligns with the latter part of the Judges’ era in ancient Israel. The closing two lines of the Merneptah stela read: “Canaan is ravaged with every affliction. Ashkelon is taken, Gezer seized, Yano’am is obliterated. Israel is devastated; its seed exists no more.”

How should we interpret the use of the term “Israel” in this context? Hieroglyphic writing often included silent signs, or determinatives, that clarified the category to which the words belonged. “The Rise of Ancient Israel,” a scholarly publication, elaborates: “Three out of the four entities—Ashkelon, Gezer, and Yano’am—have a determinative signifying that they are cities. Israel, however, is marked with a determinative indicating it is a people.” The italics are original to the text.

What significance does this ancient inscription hold? Hershel Shanks, a prominent editor and author, provides insight: “The Merneptah Stele confirms that a group identified as Israel was in existence by 1212 BCE. Moreover, the Egyptian pharaoh not only recognized them but deemed it worthy to proclaim their defeat as a significant victory.”

William G. Dever, a professor of Near Eastern archaeology, adds: “The Merneptah Stele conveys one clear message: a people named ‘Israel’ indeed resided in Canaan. And this recognition came from the Egyptians—who, devoid of biblical biases, had no reason to concoct a unique and specific group called ‘Israel’ for propaganda.”

The term “Israel” first appears in the Bible as a name given to the patriarch Jacob. The twelve sons of Jacob and their descendants came to be known as “the sons of Israel” (Genesis 32:22–28, 32; 35:9, 10). Later, both the prophet Moses and the Egyptian Pharaoh utilized the term “Israel” when referring to Jacob’s descendants (Exodus 5:1, 2). Thus, the Merneptah Stele, with its specific mention of a people called Israel, stands as the oldest known non-Biblical reference to this group.

In conclusion, the discovery of the Merneptah Stele in the late 19th century marks a milestone in the field of Biblical archaeology. Its inscription provides invaluable insights into the presence and status of the Israelites in the late 13th century BCE. As scholars continue to decipher and understand the messages inscribed in stone by our ancestors, we move ever closer to a more complete picture of our historical and spiritual heritage. The Merneptah Stele, with its crucial reference to Israel, will undoubtedly remain a significant focus of this ongoing exploration, serving as a beacon illuminating the past and enlightening our understanding of the Biblical narrative.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).

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Resources

“Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times” by Donald Redford (Princeton University Press, 1992). This book provides an overview of the relationships between Egypt, Canaan, and ancient Israel. The author, a notable Egyptologist, presents historical and archaeological evidence, including the mention of the Merneptah Stele.
“The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts” by Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman (Free Press, 2001). The authors discuss the archaeological evidence supporting biblical accounts, with reference to significant findings like the Merneptah Stele.
“Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?” by William G. Dever (Eerdmans, 2006). A renowned archaeologist explores the historical existence and identity of early Israelites, with mention of the Merneptah Stele.
“Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition” by James K. Hoffmeier (Oxford University Press, 1997). Hoffmeier examines the historical and archaeological evidence supporting the biblical Exodus narrative, including the significance of artifacts like the Merneptah Stele.
“A History of Ancient Israel and Judah” by J. Maxwell Miller and John H. Hayes (Westminster John Knox Press, 1986). This comprehensive history of ancient Israel and Judah includes references to key archaeological discoveries, including the Merneptah Stele, and their relevance to understanding the historical context of these civilizations.
“A Christian’s Guide to Evidence for the Bible: 101 Proofs from History and Archaeology” by J. Daniel Hays (Baker Books, 2020). This book serves as an extensive resource for Christians seeking historical and archaeological evidence to reinforce their faith. Covering a wide range of topics, Hays provides 101 evidences that correlate with biblical accounts, effectively bridging the gap between faith and tangible evidence. The book includes discussions on key archaeological findings like the Merneptah Stele, offering a robust analysis on its historical significance and its affirmation of the Bible’s depiction of the Israelites.