How Does the Book of Esther Demonstrate Jehovah’s Providence in Preserving His People?

Introduction: The Unique Role of Esther in Israel’s History

The Book of Esther is a compelling narrative set during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 B.C.E.) in the Persian Empire, depicting Jehovah’s providence in preserving His covenant people in a foreign land. Though Jehovah’s name is not directly mentioned, His sovereign hand is evident throughout the events that unfold, emphasizing His protection and guidance. The story focuses on Esther, a Jewish queen in the Persian court, and Mordecai, her cousin and guardian. Together, their faith and courage highlight how Jehovah orchestrates deliverance for His people amid dire threats.

Authorship and Historical Context of the Book of Esther

Identification of Mordecai as the Author

Mordecai, a key figure in the narrative, is the most likely author of the Book of Esther. His proximity to the events, his detailed knowledge of Persian court customs, and his role in uncovering significant plots suggest firsthand authorship. Mordecai’s position “in the king’s gate” (Esther 2:19, 21) implies access to the Persian administration, enabling him to record these events with precision. His familiarity with Jewish law and Persian governance made him uniquely qualified to document this historical account.

The Historical Setting and Persian Cultural Influence

The narrative is firmly rooted in the Persian Empire’s cultural and administrative practices. Xerxes I, also called Ahasuerus, ruled over a vast empire stretching from India to Cush (Esther 1:1). The detailed descriptions of Persian customs—lavish banquets, royal decrees, and hierarchical governance—align with historical records of the Achaemenid period. The opulent feasts described in Esther 1:3–5 reflect the wealth and authority of Xerxes, setting the stage for the dramatic events that follow.

Jehovah’s Hidden Providence in the Narrative

Esther’s Selection as Queen

Esther’s elevation from an orphaned Jewish exile to the queen of Persia exemplifies Jehovah’s providential care. Her discreet obedience to Mordecai’s counsel to conceal her Jewish identity (Esther 2:10) highlights Jehovah’s wisdom in guiding His people. Despite the cultural and political complexities of Persian court life, Esther’s selection as queen positions her to act as an advocate for her people during a time of crisis.

Mordecai’s Loyalty and the Uncovered Assassination Plot

Mordecai’s integrity is evident when he uncovers a conspiracy to assassinate King Xerxes (Esther 2:21–23). By reporting the plot, Mordecai earns the king’s favor, an act recorded in the royal chronicles. This seemingly minor event becomes pivotal when it later serves as the basis for Mordecai’s elevation and the deliverance of the Jews (Esther 6:1–3). Mordecai’s faithfulness reflects Proverbs 24:21, which encourages respect for authority as part of godly wisdom.

Haman’s Plot Against the Jews

Haman, an Amalekite and a high-ranking official, becomes a central antagonist in the story. Mordecai’s refusal to bow to Haman (Esther 3:2) triggers Haman’s plot to annihilate the Jewish people. Haman’s plan to offer 10,000 talents of silver to the king’s treasury (Esther 3:9) underscores the depth of his malice. However, his reliance on casting lots (purim) to determine the date of the massacre (Esther 3:7) is ultimately overruled by Jehovah’s sovereignty, illustrating the scriptural principle in Proverbs 19:21: “Many are the plans in a person’s heart, but it is Jehovah’s purpose that prevails.”

Esther’s Courage and Faith

Faced with Haman’s genocidal decree, Esther exemplifies faith and courage by choosing to intervene. Mordecai’s encouragement—“Who knows whether you have come to the kingdom for such a time as this?” (Esther 4:14)—reveals a recognition of Jehovah’s guiding hand. Esther’s request for fasting among the Jews (Esther 4:16) reflects her reliance on Jehovah’s support. Her approach to Xerxes, though fraught with personal risk, results in the exposure of Haman’s plot and the salvation of her people.

The Justice of Jehovah: Haman’s Downfall

Haman’s downfall is a striking example of Jehovah’s justice. The gallows Haman constructed for Mordecai becomes the instrument of his own execution (Esther 7:10). This reversal reflects the biblical principle in Proverbs 26:27: “Whoever digs a pit will fall into it.” Mordecai’s subsequent rise to power, becoming second only to Xerxes, signifies Jehovah’s approval of his faithfulness and loyalty.

The Establishment of the Feast of Purim

Celebrating Jehovah’s Deliverance

Mordecai and Esther establish the Feast of Purim to commemorate the Jews’ deliverance. This annual celebration, observed “throughout every generation” (Esther 9:28), highlights Jehovah’s sovereignty and faithfulness. Similar to the Passover, Purim serves as a reminder of Jehovah’s protection over His covenant people.

Reinforcing Jewish Identity and Unity

Purim also reinforces the unity and distinctiveness of the Jewish people within a foreign empire. The observance strengthens their identity and commitment to Jehovah, counteracting the cultural assimilation pressures they faced. This aligns with the broader post-exilic efforts of leaders like Ezra and Nehemiah to preserve covenant fidelity.

Jehovah’s Hidden Hand in Esther’s Account

The Sovereign Orchestration of Events

The Book of Esther is unique in its omission of Jehovah’s name, yet His providence is unmistakable. From Esther’s rise to queenship to the king’s sleepless night leading to Mordecai’s recognition (Esther 6:1–2), Jehovah’s orchestration of events demonstrates His control over history. Proverbs 21:1 encapsulates this truth: “The king’s heart is in the hand of Jehovah; he directs it like a stream of water wherever he pleases.”

Faith and Courage in Adversity

The narrative of Esther and Mordecai illustrates the importance of unwavering faith and courage, even when Jehovah’s presence is not overtly visible. Their reliance on Jehovah’s sovereignty provides an enduring example for believers facing challenges, affirming that Jehovah works through both extraordinary and ordinary circumstances to accomplish His will.

The Enduring Significance of the Book of Esther

The Book of Esther powerfully demonstrates Jehovah’s providence and His ability to preserve His people, even when His presence seems hidden. Through Esther’s faith, Mordecai’s loyalty, and the divine orchestration of events, the narrative serves as a testament to Jehovah’s faithfulness and sovereignty. The annual celebration of Purim continues to remind generations of Jehovah’s deliverance and care, encouraging believers to trust in Him amidst adversity.

Historical Setting (Bible Background)

Historical Context of the Book of Esther

The book of Esther unfolds during the reign of King Ahasuerus, identified with the Persian king Xerxes I, who ruled from 486/5 to 465 B.C.E. Xerxes I is well-known in historical records outside the Bible for his vast empire and significant battles, such as his campaign against Greece. The biblical account focuses on events in the royal city of Susa (or Shushan), one of the Persian Empire’s primary capitals. This historical setting is pivotal for understanding the narrative, as it depicts the cultural, legal, and political landscape of the Persian Empire during this period.

Xerxes’ third year of reign (483 B.C.E.) marks the opening of the narrative (Esther 1:3), as he hosted an extravagant banquet to display his wealth and power. This event likely coincided with preparations for his military campaign against Greece. During this banquet, Queen Vashti disobeyed Xerxes’ command to appear before his guests, leading to her removal as queen (Esther 1:10-12). This sets the stage for Esther, a Jewish woman, to become queen—a development that plays a critical role in the deliverance of the Jewish people.

Persian Culture and Governance in the Book of Esther

The Persian Empire, stretching from India to Ethiopia (Esther 1:1), was marked by a centralized government under the rule of a king with near-absolute authority. The king’s decrees were irrevocable, as emphasized in Esther 1:19 and 8:8, where laws written in the name of the king and sealed with his signet ring could not be altered. This rigidity in governance is evident in Haman’s plot to annihilate the Jews and the subsequent counter-decree allowing the Jews to defend themselves (Esther 3:12-13; 8:10-11).

The account also highlights the inner workings of the Persian court. For instance, the elaborate selection process for a new queen (Esther 2:2-4) and the prominence of royal officials, such as Haman and Mordecai, reflect the political structure and social hierarchy of the time. Archaeological findings, such as the detailed remains of Xerxes’ palace at Susa, corroborate the description of the opulence and organization of the Persian court as portrayed in the book of Esther.

Mordecai, Haman, and Esther: Key Figures

Esther and Mordecai, both Jews living in exile, were descendants of those taken captive during the Babylonian exile (Esther 2:5-6). Mordecai, identified as a Benjaminite of the lineage of Kish, is introduced as a court official who becomes instrumental in exposing a plot against the king’s life (Esther 2:21-23). His refusal to bow to Haman, an Agagite, stems from his allegiance to God and the historical enmity between Israel and the Amalekites, from whom Haman was descended (Esther 3:1-4; cf. Exodus 17:14-16).

Haman, elevated to a position of power by the king, uses his influence to orchestrate a genocidal decree against the Jews, citing Mordecai’s defiance as a pretext (Esther 3:5-6). The providential rise of Esther as queen, however, allows her to intercede for her people, leading to Haman’s downfall and the Jews’ deliverance (Esther 7:3-10; 9:1-2).

God’s Sovereign Hand in the Narrative

Although God is not explicitly mentioned in the book of Esther, his providential care for his people is evident throughout the narrative. The acrostic occurrences of the Tetragrammaton (JHVH) in the Hebrew text (Esther 1:20; 5:4; 5:13; 7:7) further underscore this theme. These subtle references to Jehovah’s name are marked in ancient Hebrew manuscripts and emphasize his unseen hand guiding the events.

For example, Mordecai’s timely discovery of the assassination plot against Xerxes (Esther 2:21-23) and the king’s insomnia that led to the recognition of Mordecai’s loyalty (Esther 6:1-3) demonstrate divine orchestration. Esther’s courageous decision to approach the king uninvited, risking her life, also reflects faith in God’s providence (Esther 4:16). As Mordecai noted, Esther’s rise to queenship was likely orchestrated by God “for such a time as this” (Esther 4:14).

Authenticity of the Book of Esther

The book of Esther stands as a historically and textually authentic account. Several factors validate its reliability:

1. Historical Accuracy: The detailed descriptions of Persian customs, laws, and geography align with historical records. For instance, the Greek historian Herodotus describes a lavish banquet hosted by Xerxes in his third year, corresponding to Esther 1:3. Additionally, Persian administrative records include the name “Marduka,” which may refer to Mordecai.
2. Cultural Precision: The narrative’s depiction of Persian royal protocol, such as the extensive preparations for Xerxes’ campaigns and the prohibition against approaching the king unsummoned (Esther 4:11), is consistent with historical accounts.
3. Language and Style: The use of late Biblical Hebrew, interspersed with Persian and Aramaic loanwords, situates the book firmly within the Achaemenid period. The linguistic parallels with Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah suggest a similar timeframe of composition.
4. Canonical Acceptance: Jewish tradition has long regarded Esther as canonical. The festival of Purim, established in Esther 9:20-32, continues to be observed by Jewish communities, attesting to the book’s historical significance and enduring legacy.

Literary Form and Structure

The book of Esther is a narrative, a literary form comprising approximately 40% of the Old Testament. Narratives in Scripture are historical accounts intended to convey theological truths through real events. Esther’s story exemplifies this, intertwining human actions with divine providence to demonstrate God’s faithfulness to his covenant people.

The narrative unfolds with a clear structure: the crisis initiated by Haman’s plot (Esther 3:8-11), Esther’s intercession (Esther 5:1-8), and the dramatic reversal of fortune that culminates in Haman’s execution and the Jews’ deliverance (Esther 7:9-10; 9:1-2). This structure highlights the central theme of divine justice and deliverance.

Theological Themes in Esther

The central theme of Esther is God’s preservation of his covenant people despite the absence of overt miracles or direct mention of his name. This theme resonates with Paul’s assertion in Romans 8:28: “And we know that all things work together for good to those who love God, to those who are called according to his purpose.”

The story also emphasizes human responsibility in fulfilling God’s purposes. Esther’s willingness to act on behalf of her people, despite personal risk, illustrates the importance of courage and faith. Mordecai’s recognition of divine providence in Esther’s position as queen underscores the interplay between human decisions and God’s sovereignty (Esther 4:14).

Purpose of the Book of Esther

The book of Esther serves as a testament to God’s faithfulness and a source of encouragement for believers. As Paul wrote in Romans 15:4: “For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope.” Similarly, 1 Corinthians 10:6, 11 reminds us that Old Testament accounts were written as examples for our instruction.

Esther’s narrative reminds believers of God’s unfailing protection and the assurance that his purposes will prevail. It also serves as a call to faithfulness, courage, and trust in God’s providence, even in circumstances where his presence may not be immediately apparent.

The book of Esther, firmly rooted in its historical context, remains a powerful demonstration of God’s sovereignty and faithfulness. Through its detailed portrayal of Persian culture, authentic historical elements, and profound theological themes, the narrative continues to inspire believers to trust in God’s unseen hand at work in their lives.

Apocryphal Additions to the Book of Esther

These Apocryphal[10] additions to Esther make up six passages with 105 verses that were added to the Greek Septuagint, not found in the Hebrew Old Testament, most likely by an Egyptian Jew sometime around 100 B.C.E.

The Septuagint is a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible produce between 280 – 150 B.C.E. to meet the needs of Greek-speaking Jews outside Palestine. The Septuagint contains some books, not in the Hebrew canon. The Apocrypha are “books [or additions to books] included in the Septuagint and Vulgate but excluded from the Jewish and Protestant canons of the Old Testament.”― (Mirriam-Webster 2003) They are not the inspired, inerrant Word of God, and in many cases, the person writing these books or additions, are often dishonest, trying to represent falsely that the work is of an inspired author. The content within these apocryphal works not only contradict the inspired canonical books of the Bible, but also many times contradict themselves. Moreover, they are filled with historical and geographic errors and anachronisms.

BIBLE DIFFICULTIES Esther Chapter 1

ESTHER 1:20; 5:4, 13; 7:7 Why is Esther a part of the Bible Canon, when it does not mention God, nor use the Tetragrammaton?[11]

While God is not directly mentioned in the book of Esther, his personal name is found there four times in acrostic form of the Tetragrammaton, JHVH or YHWH, Jehovah or Yahweh. (1:20) “It … and all the women will give.” (Heb.) Hi’ Wekhol-Hannashim Yittenu is the first acrostic of the Tetragrammaton, (YHWH). Also, see 5:4, 13; 7:7. The appropriate acrostic letters of the Tetragrammaton are marked to stand out in no less than three ancient Hebrew manuscripts. In the Masora (margin of the Hebrew text), these same letters are marked in red letters. This is something that the Jewish people would easily recognize, but the Persians would have never noticed. In addition, God’s hand is very involved in Esther’s life from beginning to end, which is all too clear to anyone who reads the account of it, in the book of Esther.

BIBLE DIFFICULTIES Esther Chapters 2

ESTHER 2:1-18 Was it not wrong for Esther to participate in a pagan contest to become queen?

First, Esther did not seek this out, “Esther also was taken into the king’s palace and put in custody of Hegai.” (2:8) Second, nothing in this historical account suggests that any of the women had to commit some immoral action. If that had been the case, we can be assured that God would not have used her as an instrument to deliver Israel at the appointed time. Moreover, Esther herself would have declined based on what we know about her. Third, when the king chose Esther as his queen, she had no alternative but to be a part of his court. However, we must realize that she was doing all of this because she knew she was going to be called on to risk her life for the sake of God’s people.

ESTHER 2:5-6 Was Mordecai taken into captivity with Jeconiah over 120 years earlier?

Esther 2:5-6 Updated American Standard Version (UASV)

5 Now there was a Jew in Susa the citadel whose name was Mordecai, the son of Jair, son of Shimei, son of Kish, a Benjaminite, ⁶ who had been carried away from Jerusalem among the captives carried away with Jeconiah king of Judah, whom Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon had carried away.

Bible critics and liberal scholarship do not accept the traditional historicity of the Bible book or that Mordecai was a real person. They interpret Esther 2:5-6 as saying that Mordecai was taken into captivity with Jeconiah, which would mean that he was over 120 years old at the time of the events in the book of Esther, also having a young beautiful cousin 100 years younger. This just is not the case, as the author of Esther is not trying to convey the history of Mordecai, but rather to give his lineage. It is likely that Kish was his grandfather, and it is he, who was “carried away from Jerusalem among the captives carried away with Jeconiah king of Judah.” On this Gleason L. Archer writes,

On the basis of Est. 2:5–6 some critics have alleged that the author must have regarded Xerxes as a near successor to King Nebuchadnezzar since he implies that Mordecai was carried off in the deportation of Jehoiachin in 597 and yet was still very much alive in the reign of Xerxes (485–464 B.C.). But this deduction is founded upon a mistaken interpretation of the Hebrew text; the true antecedent of the relative pronoun who in verse 6 is not Mordecai himself but rather Kish, his great-grandfather. If it was Kish who was Jehoiachin’s contemporary, as the author implies, three generations would have elapsed by the time of Mordecai—a proper interval between 597 and 483.[12]

ESTHER 2:14-17 Did Esther have sexual relations with the king?

No, she did not. Verse 14 says, “In the evening she would go in and in the morning she would return to the second harem, to the custody of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch who was in charge of the concubines. She would not again go into the king unless the king delighted in her and she was summoned by name.” The third person pronoun in this verse, “she,” is a reference to “the young women” of verse 13, not Esther. These young women became the king’s concubines or secondary wives. On the other hand, verse 17 says, “The king loved Esther more than all the women, and she found favor and kindness with him more than all the virgins, so that he set the royal crown on her head and made her queen instead of Vashti.”

Thus, with Esther, it says nothing about the next morning, or that she was taken to the house of the concubines. She did not find favor through sexual relations, but through her humble appearance, and the person that everyone else grew to love immediately. Verse 15 says, “Esther was winning favor in the eyes of all who saw her.” Unlike all the women that came before, as well as Vashti, she was not acting as though she were more important or special than everyone else because of her great beauty, nor was she after the King’s possessions. “When the turn came for Esther … to go into the king, she asked for nothing except what Hegai the king’s eunuch, who had charge of the women, advised.” Esther is selfless, so she does not look to make some showy display, and therefore does not ask for anything beyond what Hegai advised, while the other women picked many jewels, knowing that they were allowed to keep them after their night with the king.

BIBLE DIFFICULTIES Esther Chapter 3

ESTHER 3:2 What is the most likely reason for Mordecai refusing to bow before Haman?

As was stated in the coverage of the chapter, the Israelites had no problem accepting the sovereignty of a nation that they may have been under, if it did not violate their worship to their God, Jehovah. Thus, they had a history of bowing before leaders out of respect, not worship. The issue here between Mordecai and Haman is more involved. Haman was an Agagite, an Amalekite, to which the Scriptures below will address. Mordecai felt that his bowing before Haman was an act of disloyalty to Jehovah. His refusal is based on his being a Jew. (3:3-4)

Exodus 17:14-16 Updated American Standard Version (UASV)

¹⁴ Then Jehovah said to Moses, “Write this as a memorial in the book and recite it in the ears of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven.” ¹⁵ And Moses built an altar, and he called its name Jehovah Is My Banner; ¹⁶ and he said, “Because a hand is against the throne of Jah; Jehovah will have war against Amalek from generation to generation.”

Deuteronomy 25:17-19 Updated American Standard Version (UASV)

Revenge on the Amalekites

¹⁷ “Remember what Amalek did to you on the way as you came out of Egypt, ¹⁸ how he met you along the way and attacked among you all the stragglers at your rear when you were faint and weary; and he did not fear God. ¹⁹ Therefore it shall come about when Jehovah your God has given you rest from all your surrounding enemies, in the land which Jehovah your God gives you as an inheritance to possess it, you shall blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven; you must not forget.

Amalek was a grandson of Esau, who was one of the chieftains of Edom. (Gen. 36:15, 16) Amalek’s name also stood for his ancestral descendants, The Amalekites.[13] The two sources below help us appreciate the level of hatred that Haman must have carried for the Jewish people, especially Mordecai.

[The Amalekites were a] Nomadic tribe of formidable people that first [led an unprovoked] attacked the Israelites after the exodus at Rephidim. Descendants of Amalek, the grandson of Esau (Gen. 36:12), they inhabited the desolate wasteland of the northeast Sinai Peninsula and the Negev. They were the first to attack Israel after the exodus (Num. 24:20). Israel won the initial battle (Exod. 17:8–16), but later was driven back into the Sinai wilderness by a coalition of Amalekites and Canaanites (Num. 14:39–45). Thereafter the Amalekites waged a barbaric guerrilla war against Israel (Deut. 25:17–19). Fighting continued after Israel settled in Canaan. Because of their atrocities, God commanded Saul to exterminate the Amalekites (1 Sam. 15:2–3). Saul disobeyed and the Amalekites were not defeated completely until late in the eighth century B.C. (1 Chron. 4:43). No archaeological data concerning the Amalekites has been discovered to date.[14]

The Amalekites were a nomadic people descended from Esau (Gen. 36:12, 16). They typically ranged through the Negev and Sinai Peninsula, where they clashed with Israel during the Exodus (Ex. 17:8–13; Deut. 25:17–18). But during the reign of King Saul, the conflict became fateful. God ordered Saul to utterly destroy the Amalekites and to take no booty from them. But Saul saved some of the loot and took the Amalekite king, Agag, as a captive. The prophet Samuel killed Agag, but not before informing Saul that his disobedience would cost him his throne (1 Sam. 15). Since Mordecai is associated with the house of Saul, the clash between Mordecai and Haman is set up as a “rematch” of the Saul-Agag affair.[15]

As one would expect there is no love lost between the descendants of Amalek and the Jewish people, especially the house of Saul. Haman is filled with fury when he discovers that the one person, who fails to bow before him, is also a Jew, and is of the house of Saul. Haman has the perfect opportunity to exact revenge on the Jewish people. Verse 1 of chapter three begins with Haman’s promotion.

BIBLE DIFFICULTIES Chapter 4

ESTHER 3:2 Didn’t Esther disobey a governmental authority that had been allowed by God.

Persian law said that no one was to go into the king uninvited, with the penalty being the possibility of the death penalty. On this point, Freedman and Chadwick write, “Etiquette in the Persian court was very strict. Except for the ‘seven nobles’ (see Esther 1:4), no one could approach the king unless they were summoned by him. The punishment for entering without being summoned was death, the same punishment given for murder or rebellion. The intruder was instantly put to death by the court attendants unless the king extended his golden scepter to the person to show approval, or at least acceptance, of the act. It was well understood, therefore, that whoever so appeared before the king risked his life. The fact that Ahasuerus extended his scepter to Esther when she entered the court uninvited shows the influence she had gained with him.”[1]

Romans 13:1-2 Updated American Standard Version (UASV)

13 Let every soul^[2] be in subjection to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except by God, and those that exist have been placed^[3] by God. ² Therefore the one setting himself against authority has taken a stand against the ordinance of God; and those who have taken a stand against it will receive judgment against themselves.

God’s servants are to be obedient and subject “to the governing authorities,” which have been left in place by God, to serve human protection against chaos and anarchy. In fact, to be disobedient, such as breaking laws, or refusing to pay taxes, resists what God has allowed, “and those who resist will incur judgment.” However, there has always been an exception to this rule, which Peter addressed nicely when the governments asked Christians to stop do something; God had commanded them to do. Peter said, “We must obey God rather than men.”

In other words, if the government, any kind of authority asks us to do something that is against God’s Word, we obey God, nor some man-made rule. For example, if the government made a law that it was illegal to evangelize, Christians would still evangelize. They would have to obey Jesus’ command to proclaim the Word of God, to teach and make disciples.―Matthew 24:14; 28:19-20; Acts 1:8.

[1] James M. Freeman and Harold J. Chadwick, Manners & Customs of the Bible (North Brunswick, NJ: Bridge-Logos Publishers, 1998), 297.

[2] Or person

[3] Or established, instituted

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[10] Apocrypha (Greek apokryphos, “hidden”), a word coined by the 5th-century biblical scholar Saint Jerome for the biblical books received by the church of his time as part of the Greek version of the Old Testament (see Septuagint), but that were not included in the Hebrew Bible. In the Authorized, or King James, Version, the books are either printed as an appendix or are omitted altogether; they are not considered canonical by Protestants.―Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

[11] The Tetragrammaton is the Hebrew name for God and is found in the Old Testament 6828 times: a four-letter Hebrew name of God revealed to Moses, usually written JHVH or YHWH (Exodus 3:13-14).

[12] Gleason Archer Jr., A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, 3rd. ed. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1994), 465.

[13] Deuteronomy 25:17; Judges 7:12; 1 Samuel 15:2

[14] LeBron Matthews, “Amalekite”, in Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, ed. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England et al., 54 (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003).

[15] John H Walton, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Old Testament) Volume 3: 1 & 2 Kings, 1 & 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, 486-87 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009).