Attitudes of Pagans Toward Christians in the Early Centuries of the Church

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Pagan Perceptions of Christians from Nero to Constantine (64–313 C.E.)

The relationship between pagans and Christians in the first three centuries of the Christian era was marked by misunderstanding, suspicion, hostility, and at times, grudging admiration. The prevailing pagan world—shaped by Greco-Roman religious, philosophical, and political assumptions—found itself increasingly confronted by a rapidly growing, exclusivist, and evangelistic movement that refused to participate in the cultural-religious norms of the Empire. Understanding the attitudes of pagans toward Christians requires a careful examination of pagan literary sources, government decrees, philosophical critiques, and archeological evidence, all while anchoring the timeline in literal biblical chronology and first-century historical context.

Initial Indifference and Misunderstanding (29–64 C.E.)

From the public ministry of Jesus in 29 C.E. to the burning of Rome in 64 C.E., pagan attitudes toward Christians were largely marked by ignorance or indifference. Christianity, initially viewed as a Jewish sect, drew little attention from Roman authorities. Luke’s record in Acts (written between 56–58 C.E.) reflects that in cities such as Corinth, Athens, and Ephesus, pagan response to Christians varied widely—some mocked, some were curious, and some violently opposed Paul and his companions (Acts 17:32; 19:23–41). Roman officials such as Gallio (Acts 18:12–17) viewed Christian disputes as internal Jewish matters and were reluctant to interfere.

Illustrative image of Ancient Times: Neopaganism — rich with ritual, nature, and that mystical earth-connected vibe.

However, the Jewish War (66–73 C.E.) and the growing divergence between Christians and Jews following the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E. clarified the separate identity of Christians. This new religious group’s refusal to honor the Roman pantheon and the Emperor cult began to attract unfavorable attention.

From Nero’s Scapegoating to Trajan’s Policy (64–117 C.E.)

The great fire of Rome in 64 C.E., which Nero allegedly set to clear land for his Golden House, marked a watershed moment in pagan-Christian relations. Tacitus, a Roman senator and historian, records in Annals 15.44 that Nero blamed the Christians, describing them as “a class hated for their abominations.” Tacitus’s description—although hostile—provides insight into elite Roman attitudes. Christians were considered superstitious, secretive, and morally corrupt, accused of “hatred of the human race.” The Roman distaste was not merely theological but social: Christians’ refusal to conform to Roman religious and civic life appeared subversive.

The subsequent Flavian emperors, Vespasian (69–79 C.E.) and Titus (79–81 C.E.), seem not to have targeted Christians directly, though Domitian (81–96 C.E.) may have persecuted Christians under charges of “atheism”—a term often applied to those who denied the gods. Suetonius and Dio Cassius record various acts of repression, though not all were state-sanctioned. The absence of Christian participation in public cults, feasts, and sacrifices alienated them further.

Under Trajan (98–117 C.E.), we possess one of the clearest insights into Roman administrative policy toward Christians through Pliny the Younger’s correspondence (c. 112 C.E.). Pliny, governor of Bithynia, encountered Christians and was unsure how to proceed. In his letter, he described interrogating Christians, offering them the opportunity to recant, worship the emperor’s image, and curse Christ. If they refused, he executed them. Trajan’s reply laid down a crucial policy: Christians were not to be hunted, but if accused and convicted, they must be punished unless they recanted. This policy institutionalized a legal framework that criminalized Christian identity while discouraging widespread pogroms.

Philosophical and Popular Hostility (117–180 C.E.)

During the reigns of Hadrian (117–138 C.E.) and Antoninus Pius (138–161 C.E.), attitudes among educated pagans toward Christians hardened intellectually. Pagan philosophers such as Celsus (writing c. 177 C.E.) composed polemics against Christianity, accusing Christians of irrationality, low social origin, disloyalty to the Empire, and destructive secrecy. Celsus’s work The True Word—known through Origen’s later rebuttal—repeats the typical pagan objections: Christians lacked education, rejected ancestral tradition, and their doctrine was both novel and subversive.

Celsus was a second-century pagan philosopher.

At the popular level, Christians continued to be the target of rumors and slanders. Accusations of incest, cannibalism (a distortion of the Lord’s Supper), and infanticide persisted. These slanders were exacerbated by Christians’ withdrawal from pagan feasts, temple rituals, and festivals, creating social friction. Archeological findings such as the Alexamenos graffito—a second-century Roman caricature depicting a Christian worshiping a donkey-headed crucified figure—demonstrate contempt and mockery.

Despite this hostility, some pagans were impressed by Christian moral conduct. Lucian of Samosata, though scornful, noted in his satirical account The Death of Peregrinus that Christians were unusually charitable, willing to care for one another in prison and even suffer martyrdom cheerfully. The contrast between their ethics and the decadence of pagan society occasionally led to conversions among the more thoughtful observers.

Systematized Persecution and Pagan Backlash (180–250 C.E.)

Under Marcus Aurelius (161–180 C.E.) and later Severan rulers, sporadic persecutions intensified. Marcus Aurelius, a Stoic philosopher-emperor, viewed Christians as irrational and obstinate. His reign witnessed the martyrdoms of prominent Christians like Justin Martyr (c. 165 C.E.), who had earlier tried to rationally defend Christianity using Greco-Roman philosophy, and the Christians of Lyons (177 C.E.), documented by Eusebius, whose sufferings reflect both civic hostility and official complicity.

The Severan dynasty (193–235 C.E.), particularly under Septimius Severus, issued edicts restricting conversions to Christianity and Judaism. Though enforcement varied, Christians often suffered confiscation of property, social ostracism, and violent death. Yet the Christian population grew, which further increased pagan alarm. The Decian persecution (249–251 C.E.), under Emperor Decius, marked a turning point. For the first time, the entire empire was required to perform public sacrifices and obtain certificates (libelli) proving compliance. Christians who refused were imprisoned or executed. This campaign was driven by a fear that Christian exclusivism endangered the pax deorum (peace of the gods) and thus the security of the Empire.

Theological Polemics and the Rise of Christian Apologetics

In the face of pagan attacks, Christian apologists emerged to respond, reshape, and defend the faith intellectually. Men like Athenagoras, Tertullian, and Minucius Felix directly engaged with pagan critiques, demonstrating that Christians were not seditious, nor immoral, but law-abiding, peaceable, and ethical. Tertullian famously wrote, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church,” reflecting the paradoxical effect of persecution—rather than being extinguished, the Church multiplied.

Apologists addressed the false charges, emphasized the antiquity of Christian belief (by connecting it to Old Testament revelation), and argued for the reasonableness of monotheism over polytheism. They appealed to Roman concepts of justice and virtue, even as they called pagans to repentance and faith in Christ.

Diocletian and the Great Persecution (303–311 C.E.)

The culmination of pagan hostility came under Emperor Diocletian. Initially tolerant, Diocletian was persuaded by his co-ruler Galerius and pagan priesthoods that Christians posed a grave threat to imperial unity. Beginning in 303 C.E., edicts were issued ordering the destruction of churches, the burning of Scriptures, and the imprisonment of clergy. Christians were forced to sacrifice under pain of death. This “Great Persecution” lasted officially until 311 C.E. and represents the most systematic attempt to eliminate Christianity from the Roman world.

Depiction of Emperor Diocletian in a dramatic palace setting, highlighting his authority during the Tetrarchy and the Christian persecutions.

Yet, Christianity endured. Even in the imperial court, sympathizers existed. Constantine, whose rise would soon change everything, was influenced by his Christian mother, Helena. Galerius, on his deathbed in 311 C.E., issued an edict of toleration, acknowledging the failure of persecution and permitting Christians to meet if they prayed for the empire.

The endurance, courage, and moral integrity of Christians in the face of relentless hostility left a deep impression on even their enemies. Pagan attitudes, once marked by mockery and rage, began to shift. By the time of Constantine’s Edict of Milan in 313 C.E., pagan resistance to Christianity was in retreat, setting the stage for a dramatically transformed Roman world.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).