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Examining Old Testament Terminology

The Hebrew Scriptures employ a range of words traditionally translated “slave,” “servant,” or “maidservant.” The Hebrew term often rendered “slave” is ʽebed, a word carrying a wide semantic range. The same term can mean “servant,” “employee,” “worker,” or “slave,” depending on context. This reality underscores that one cannot force modern assumptions about slavery onto every appearance of ʽebed. Various passages use ʽebed in reference to persons who possessed economic or social freedom, functioning more as employees with contractual obligations (Joshua 9:23; 1 Samuel 4:9). The Hebrew text likewise applies ʽebed to individuals who served in royal administrations, worked as advisers or seamen, or were subjects of a king (2 Samuel 8:2, 6; 1 Samuel 29:3). The same general principle emerges from the Greek Scriptures in terms such as douʹlos, which can denote literal ownership by another person (Matthew 8:9) or a figurative enslavement, as in slavery to sin (John 8:34).

Another Hebrew word, naʽar, can mean “youth,” “boy,” or “servant.” The Greek term pais also exhibits a similar range of meaning, denoting either a young person or a subordinate (Matthew 8:6; 17:18; 21:15). A female servant might be referenced by pai·diʹske (Luke 12:45). These words do not always point to harsh bondage or commercial property. Instead, they sometimes highlight an individual’s role as an attendant, subordinate, or minor in the household.

Israel’s Covenant Law and Its Impact on Servitude

A crucial body of legislation appears in Exodus 21:1-11, where multiple categories of servants or slaves are referenced. Covenant law in Israel was not patterned after the harsh, race-based slavery that many envision from modern Western historical contexts. Exodus 21:2-4 shows that a Hebrew slave generally served six years, being released in the seventh year unless he chose lifetime service. The language of “buy” (Hebrew qānâ) or “sell” (mākar) in those passages functioned much as modern sports transactions when a player is said to be “bought” or “sold” by a team. While the term is commercial, it might refer more accurately to contractual obligations rather than absolute ownership of a person as mere property. Properly followed, the covenant law shielded workers from oppression. It required that all categories of servants—whether they be day laborers, six-year contract workers, or those who chose permanent service—receive respectful treatment.

Leviticus 25:10 sets forth the Jubilee principle, guaranteeing the eventual release of Israelite slaves under certain conditions, with some nuances for foreign-born servants (Leviticus 25:44-46). Deuteronomy 15:12-15 underscores that a Hebrew servant could not be permanently consigned to servitude if unwilling. In many cases, a person sold himself or his children into servitude to pay off debt. Biblical laws, however, stopped short of condoning any scenario reminiscent of brutal lifelong chattel slavery.

Historical Context: Slavery in the Ancient Near East

When people think of “slavery,” images from the transatlantic slave trade often come to mind: the stealing of individuals from a far-off place, transporting them in deplorable conditions, and subjecting them to lifelong ownership. These modern images do not align exactly with the type of service regulated by Mosaic law. Ancient slavery, while still capable of including harsh servitude, was shaped by social, financial, and protective considerations. War frequently produced slaves from captured populations (2 Kings 5:2). Poverty induced some to sell themselves or their children so they could be provided for (Exodus 21:7). Crime also led to servitude; a thief who could not pay restitution might be sold for what he stole (Exodus 22:3).

Israel’s law code diverged from surrounding nations by structuring protections for such individuals. Exodus 21:20-27 set penalties for masters who abused their servants, granting slaves immediate freedom if physically harmed. The principle in Deuteronomy 15:13-15 commanded that an Israelite slave should be sent out with sufficient goods to start anew upon release. Such legislation reflected Jehovah’s concern for justice. Leviticus 19:18 instructed Israel to love their fellow as themselves, an ethic that would inform how they treated those in their employ.

Israelite Slavery vs. Modern Conceptions

A difficulty arises when ancient terms like “slave” or “master” are given modern connotations. The modern idea of slavery evokes the harsh context of forced labor without legal recourse or economic exchange, typically with no path to liberty. Yet in Old Testament Israel, the slave or servant usually entered this arrangement through a contract or by consent in times of financial desperation (Leviticus 25:39-43). In many instances, a master provided room, board, and wages, much as an employer would do. Exodus 21:5, 6 even describes how, upon reaching the set time of release, some servants voluntarily chose to remain long-term because their conditions were favorable. Deuteronomy 15:16, 17 affirms that such a servant might love his employer and prefer the security of a stable household.

Many businesses were “household industries,” with the entire production process carried out on the same property where the master’s family resided. The lines between “family member” and “servant” were sometimes blurred, as in the case of Eliezer managing Abraham’s extensive holdings (Genesis 24:2; 15:2, 3). By no means should one dismiss the potential for abuse in ancient society. The Law, however, aimed to mitigate exploitation and to ensure that those who became servants did not endure the dehumanizing practices commonly identified with more recent historical slave systems.

The Exodus Motif and Lessons for Israel

Israel’s own liberation from Egyptian bondage formed the basis for Jehovah’s instructions. Exodus 1:9-14 depicts the Egyptians forcing the Israelites to labor intensively. The Egyptians enslaved the Israelites based on ethnicity, required relentless labor, and displayed a cruel attitude. In contrast, the Mosaic laws demanded humane treatment, established time limits on service, and strictly forbade the kind of brutal oppression Israel once suffered under Pharaoh. The text of Exodus 21:1-4 provides for release in the seventh year. Exodus 21:26, 27 states that if a master permanently injured an eye or tooth, the servant would be set free. Such legislation condemned the cruelty that Egyptians had shown, thereby preventing Israel from repeating those offenses once they achieved their own independence.

Deuteronomy 15:14 tells masters to give generously to the departing servant, remembering that Israel too had been “slaves in Egypt.” This historical parallel required Israel’s masters to reflect Jehovah’s compassion toward those in economic desperation. Far from being an endorsement of slavery, these precepts provided strict parameters that limited the practice. The repeated echoes of “You must not oppress” (Exodus 22:21) or “You must not mistreat” (Leviticus 19:33) show that oppression was not condoned in the community that worshiped Jehovah.

Foreign-Born Servants and Differing Stipulations

The question of foreign-born servants, sometimes described as “chattel slaves,” arises from texts like Leviticus 25:44-46. Critics observe that such verses appear to allow permanent possession of foreigners. This aspect existed partly because these foreigners often came under Israel’s control through warfare or extreme poverty. Joshua 9:23, for instance, details how some groups became laborers in perpetuity. Yet even these foreign servants still fell under the broad protections of biblical law, which prohibited kidnapping (Exodus 21:16) and demanded a fundamental level of care for all individuals. The biblical text never approves a system of perpetual brutality.

In some cases, captured populations preferred subjugation to death during warfare (Joshua 9:3-27; 1 Samuel 4:9). They remained in Israel, living under the covenant restrictions that curbed rampant abuse. The Mosaic statutes, by design, discouraged the kind of unbridled power that Egyptian overseers once exercised. Employers in Israel had to answer to a divine law. Although foreign servants did not necessarily receive all the benefits that an Israelite would have (including the sabbatical release every seventh year), they still participated in certain sabbath rests (Exodus 20:10; Deuteronomy 5:14) and could eat of certain offerings (Exodus 12:44). The principle that “there is one law” for both the native and the alien resident (Numbers 15:16) also reinforced basic fairness.

Indentured Service in Cases of Debt

Poverty forced some Israelites to sell themselves or their children into servitude to pay off debts or secure basic sustenance (2 Kings 4:1). The Law regulated such arrangements, ensuring these families would not be subject to indefinite exploitation. Leviticus 25:39, 40 instructs that a poor Israelite “must not be sold as a slave” in the sense of harsh captivity, but rather “as a hired laborer or a settler.” Exodus 21:7 addresses a scenario where a father might sell his daughter, not into brutal slavery, but into a household contract in which she might become a concubine or a wife to a master’s son. That arrangement carried significant protections: if the master’s son took another wife, the first wife’s food, clothing, and marital rights could never be reduced (Exodus 21:10). If those rights were withheld, she went free without any payment (Exodus 21:11).

Economic desperation also explains why thieves unable to repay their debts were “sold” (Exodus 22:3). They worked off the amount stolen and would be released when that was compensated. Though still labeled with terms like “slave,” they frequently possessed a legal recourse once the obligation was resolved.

Forced Labor and Conscription

The Old Testament sometimes speaks of “forced labor” or “compulsory service,” using Hebrew words like seʹvel. This concept could apply to conscripted workers needed for large-scale building projects (1 Kings 5:13; 9:15). King Solomon drafted men from across Israel to labor in shifts in Lebanon, a month at a time with two months at home (1 Kings 5:13, 14). The resentment that built up under Solomon’s rule regarding this corvée labor is evident in 1 Kings 12, when the people asked Rehoboam to lighten the load. The tension points to the distinction between oppressive forced labor and the more regulated form of servitude commanded in the Law. An Israelite master did not hold indefinite ownership of those conscripted for a single building project. They usually performed a fixed term and returned home.

Protections for Servants and Slaves

Exodus 21:20, 21 explains that if a master beat a slave and the slave died immediately, the master could be punished. If the slave lingered a day or two, the case needed to be assessed—did the master intend to kill, or was the discipline excessive but not murderous? The law code singled out permanent bodily harm (such as a lost eye or tooth) as grounds for immediate release (Exodus 21:26, 27). While the notion of corporal punishment may appear harsh to modern eyes, one must consider the cultural milieu. Even so, the legal deterrent was strong: a master faced significant financial and societal repercussions for injuring a slave.

Servants in Israel had Sabbath rest (Exodus 20:10; Deuteronomy 5:14), could participate in religious festivals (Deuteronomy 16:11, 14), and shared in the gleanings or sabbatical produce (Leviticus 25:5, 6). Male slaves who were circumcised could partake of the Passover, and slaves of the priest could eat holy things (Exodus 12:44; Leviticus 22:11). Scripture thus highlights that even individuals in a slave or servant status participated in Israel’s religious identity, not relegated to an outsider category with no spiritual privilege. This stands in contrast with certain ancient societies that forbade slaves from engaging in official religious rites.

New Testament Insights on Slavery

By the first century, slavery pervaded the Roman Empire, which sanctioned ownership on a wide scale. A person could be enslaved because of capture in war, birth to an enslaved mother, or economic hardship. High-ranking families sometimes owned hundreds or thousands of slaves. The apostle Paul wrote to congregations that included both slaves and masters, showing that the Christian message permeated all social strata. He did not advocate violent revolt against Roman governance (Romans 13:1). Early Christians accepted that Roman law permitted slavery, but they introduced moral parameters intended to transform the master-slave relationship.

Paul’s letter to Philemon addresses the case of Onesimus, a runaway slave who had become a Christian. Paul sent him back, not in the spirit of endorsing cruel enslavement, but under the counsel that Philemon receive Onesimus “no longer as a slave but as more than a slave, a brother” (Philemon 10-17). Such a request carried enormous moral weight, encouraging Philemon to treat Onesimus with Christian love and equality.

Ephesians 6:5-9, Colossians 3:22–4:1, and 1 Timothy 6:1, 2 contain instructions for slave-master relationships. Christian slaves were exhorted to serve wholeheartedly, “as to Jehovah,” reflecting well on their faith. Christian masters were reminded that they too had a Master in heaven, so they had to treat their slaves in a fair and righteous manner. Such admonitions, while not calling for immediate emancipation across the empire, elevated the moral expectations within Christian communities.

Why Did Early Christians Not Abolish Slavery?

Some might ask why New Testament writers did not initiate a widespread campaign to end Roman slavery. Roman law was formidable. Encouraging open rebellion would have triggered severe consequences for the fledgling Christian congregations, likely overshadowing the spread of the gospel. Also, the apostles taught that “the authorities that exist stand placed in their relative positions by God” (Romans 13:1). The Christian hope for a future in God’s Kingdom, rather than immediate societal overthrow, shaped the early believers’ approach. Nonetheless, within their own congregations, they elevated slaves to an equal spiritual standing with free persons (Galatians 3:28), testifying that all share in the same salvation and Spirit-inspired Word.

As Christian ethics spread, the seeds were planted that would, in centuries to come, influence attitudes toward slavery. Yet in the first century, the practical route was to underscore fair treatment, compassion, and the recognition that owners and slaves alike answered to a higher authority. The letter to Philemon is a prime illustration. Though Paul sent Onesimus back, he appealed to Philemon’s Christian conscience rather than forcing legal demands. This represented a moral approach that exceeded the norms of Roman civil codes.

The Christian’s Status Before God

The New Testament teaches that all Christians, whether slave or free, were redeemed by the same ransom price—Jesus’ blood (1 Peter 1:18, 19). Paul described the believing slave as “the Lord’s freedman,” yet the free person as “Christ’s slave” (1 Corinthians 7:21-23). Such language shows that from God’s perspective, social distinctions have no bearing on spiritual worth. Even a Christian who was free physically recognized spiritual servitude to Christ, while the believing slave was free from sin’s ultimate condemnation. Both vantage points highlight that the Christian identity supersedes worldly social rank.

James 2:1-9 warns believers not to show favoritism, a principle that would apply equally to any master who might be tempted to devalue those under his authority. In the body of Christ, partiality based on wealth, rank, or power was forbidden. This ideal stands in stark contrast to societies that saw slaves as property without rights. Christian gatherings welcomed slaves as full participants, adopting no hierarchical standard that would silence them on account of their economic status.

The Freedman and the Freeman

Formal emancipation in Roman culture conferred certain rights on the freedman, though not necessarily complete political privileges. The apostle Paul, as a freeman and Roman citizen from birth, carried different legal rights than did many in the congregations. Still, he recognized that one’s real freedom or servitude is measured by spiritual standing, not civil classification (Romans 6:16-20). The Christian message targeted the heart, establishing unity among believers. This moral transformation would eventually erode the foundations of unjust institutions, though it did so gradually rather than by insurrection.

Addressing Common Misconceptions

Some point to biblical references about slavery to argue that Scripture endorses oppressive bondage. In reality, the Bible regulated an already existing social framework in the ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman world. It limited the harm that could befall persons who found themselves in servitude, whether due to war, poverty, or crime. Mosaic legislation introduced a system of checks and balances preventing indefinite, ruthless enslavement among the covenant people. New Testament counsel encouraged both slaves and masters to view one another as accountable to Christ, thereby mitigating cruelty.

Confusion arises partly from reading all biblical references to “slavery” through the lens of more recent historical atrocities. The kidnapping and forced racial slavery practiced over the last several centuries was not sanctioned by biblical principles. In fact, Exodus 21:16 condemned kidnapping someone to sell him into slavery, prescribing the death penalty for such an act. The forms of service recognized under Mosaic law differ in crucial respects from the severe bondage that became associated with colonial expansions, where the “owners” possessed unlimited license to treat individuals as property.

God’s View of Oppression

The laws given to Israel consistently portray Jehovah as a defender of the marginalized. Deuteronomy 10:17, 18 presents Him as executing justice for the fatherless child and the widow, and loving the foreign resident. Oppressive slavery violated the ethos of love of neighbor (Leviticus 19:18). Proverbs 14:31 states that one who oppresses the lowly insults his Maker. These foundational attitudes should guide how one understands God’s tolerance of forms of servitude in antiquity. When done in compliance with His laws, such servitude sought to protect both employer and worker, upholding dignity.

Amos 2:6, 7 chastises Israel for corruption, including selling righteous persons for silver. Mistreatment of the poor or disregard for the vulnerable repeatedly incurred divine condemnation. Jeremiah 34:8-17 sternly rebuked those who refused to free their fellow Israelites. Such passages confirm that God’s people were expected to reflect His justice, and when they failed, they faced repercussions. The Mosaic system was not a license for systematic exploitation but a framework for ensuring equity and compassion in times when slavery existed throughout the known world.

Pauline Writings and the Master-Slave Bond

Besides Philemon, Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus address Christian slaves. He urged them to maintain respectable conduct so that God’s name and the teachings of the faith would not be slandered (1 Timothy 6:1-2; Titus 2:9, 10). Christian slaves were called to demonstrate honesty and reliability, avoiding theft or insolence. This did not trivialize their hardships, but it highlighted their witness within a pagan society. If a Christian master mistreated a slave, that master was transgressing the same ethical demands required of all believers (Ephesians 6:9). The result was a mutual accountability that subtly challenged the status quo.

Peter, in 1 Peter 2:18-25, addressed domestic servants who might suffer unjust treatment. He reminded them of Jesus’ example, who endured suffering without retaliation. This counsel reflected the reality that the Christian community was a marginalized minority. A slave who endured injustice patiently and entrusted his hope to God was commended for his faith. This approach allowed early Christians to maintain their spiritual integrity without adopting a revolutionary stance that might have led to greater persecution or the congregation’s destruction.

Ensuring No “Babylonian Yoke”

The Law repeatedly forbade enslaving fellow Israelites in a way resembling Egypt or Babylon. Leviticus 25:42 cites the reason: “They are my servants…they must not sell themselves the way a slave is sold.” This underscores that God viewed Israel’s freedom as an extension of His redemptive act at the Exodus. A more permanent form of bondage was permitted for non-Israelite war captives, but never with carte blanche permission for brutality (Deuteronomy 20:10-15). By implementing these guidelines, the community could avoid replicating the oppressive systems they experienced in Egypt.

In every era, the biblical text upholds Jehovah’s role as a just overseer who expects His worshippers to reflect righteousness. Ezekiel 34:4-10 uses strong imagery against faithless shepherds who fatten themselves at the expense of the flock. The principle easily extends to any abuse of power, including the relationship between a master and a servant. The theological message is that those entrusted with authority must guard the well-being of those under them, or they will answer to the Supreme Judge.

The Ethical Outgrowth of Biblical Teachings

Although Scripture addresses a historical context with forms of servitude, its ethical trajectory promotes human dignity. The greatest commandments—love for God and love for neighbor (Deuteronomy 6:5; Leviticus 19:18; Matthew 22:37-40)—serve as moral anchors. When these are internalized, oppressive slavery becomes untenable. A consistent reading of the Law and Prophets shows concern for the vulnerable, pointing to a divine standard that far surpasses the cruelty commonly associated with slavery across various cultures.

Over time, as Christianity influenced broader societies, the seeds of this ethic contributed to questioning institutional slavery. However, in the first century, the church lacked political leverage to overthrow entrenched Roman laws. Instead, they demonstrated an alternative community, where a slave could be accepted not as chattel but as a beloved brother in Christ. This moral witness set a pattern for later generations to see that coerced bondage conflicted with the overarching biblical values.

Summary of Old and New Testament Perspectives

When read holistically, the Old Testament laws about servitude reveal a regulated system permitting individuals in dire straits to secure sustenance and pay debts. Protections in the Law reflect a stark difference from modern-era brutal slavery. Foreign captives could be assigned permanent labor, but the Law still required that they be treated humanely, able to benefit from religious observances and protected against wanton mistreatment. The memory of Israel’s own slavery in Egypt demanded empathic governance. The overarching concern was to prevent Israel from imitating the oppressive behaviors of pagan regimes.

In the New Testament, slavery is addressed as a social institution existing under Roman rule. Christian teaching did not encourage rebellion but transformed the moral expectations placed on masters and slaves. Slaves were encouraged to serve as though they were serving God, and masters were reminded of their accountability to the Master in heaven. The epistle to Philemon exemplifies a transforming approach, inviting the Christian community to see each other as siblings rather than mere possessions. Though not a direct legislative overthrow of slavery, the Christian ethos undermined exploitative systems over time.

Insights for Modern Application

Modern readers must avoid conflating biblical “slavery” with the horrific practice that took place in more recent centuries, where people were kidnapped based on race and subjected to lifelong bondage. Scripture never endorsed the kidnapping and sale of human beings for profit. Israel’s covenant law instead regulated existing economic and social realities, restraining them within a framework of justice. The system was intended to ensure release in the seventh year for Hebrew servants and mandated humane treatment for all. The New Testament recognized the complexity of changing deeply entrenched Roman structures but stressed a radical reorientation of attitude.

In practical terms, the biblical principles underscore the dignity of each human being. The emphasis on fair treatment, accountability to God, and the possibility of freedom resonates today. Followers of Scripture might find encouragement to treat employees, dependents, or those under their authority with compassion, fairness, and respect. Though ancient, the biblical counsel remains relevant, reminding believers that any form of servitude or employment must align with godly love and justice.

Concluding Perspective on Biblical Servitude

The question “How Are We to Understand Slavery in Both the Old and New Testaments?” can be answered by examining a historical institution shaped by war, debt, and poverty. Scripture responds with regulations that curb oppression, require periodic release, and bestow dignity on individuals. The Exodus experience served as a moral anchor for Israel’s treatment of servants, while Christian teachings in the first century introduced a paradigm-shifting view of masters and slaves as equal before God. Though the full eradication of slavery did not occur in Bible times, the foundations were laid for a community that would value each person as a creation of Jehovah, ultimately rendering exploitative slavery incompatible with biblical ideals of righteousness.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).