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Bread in the Bible: A Comprehensive Examination

Bread as a Staple in Ancient Diets

Bread, a baked food often leavened, was a fundamental part of the diet in ancient times. The Hebrew term for bread is “leʹchem” and the Greek term is “arʹtos.” Bread was so integral to daily life that the art of bread-making was common among various ancient peoples, including the Israelites, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Even today, in parts of the Middle East, bread remains a primary food source, with other types of food considered secondary. Sometimes, the Bible uses “bread” to refer to food in general, as seen in Genesis 3:19 and in the model prayer where it says, “Give us today our bread for this day” (Matthew 6:11).

Model of a house containing a brewery (top) and bakery, from the tomb of Meketre (11th Dynasty Egypt, 2135–2000 B.C.) at Thebes. Thirteen men and women (not all visible) crush and grind grain, mix dough, form cakes, and tend the ovens. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1919–1920 excavations)

Ingredients and Methods of Bread-Making

The primary ingredients for bread among the Hebrews were wheat flour and barley flour. Wheat, being more expensive, meant that many often consumed barley bread. Barley bread is mentioned in Judges 7:13, 2 Kings 4:42, and John 6:9, 13. Flour ranged from coarse, prepared with mortar and pestle, to fine flour, referenced in Genesis 18:6, Leviticus 2:1, and 1 Kings 4:22. The manna provided by Jehovah during Israel’s wilderness journey was ground in hand mills or pounded in a mortar (Numbers 11:8).

Fresh bread was typically ground and baked daily, often as unleavened bread (mats·tsahʹ in Hebrew). Unleavened bread was made by simply mixing flour with water without adding leaven. For leavened bread, a piece of dough from a previous batch served as the leavening agent, crumbled into water before mixing with flour, and then left to stand until leavened (Galatians 5:9).

Bread in Religious Offerings

In the offerings made to Jehovah, baked goods were included (Leviticus 2:4-13). Leaven was not permissible in offerings made by fire to Jehovah, though some offerings not burned on the altar could contain leaven (Leviticus 7:13; 23:17). During Passover and the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, the use of leavened bread was strictly prohibited (Exodus 12:8, 15, 18).

Bread’s Prominence in Daily Life

The frequent biblical references to bread highlight its importance. Melchizedek brought out bread and wine when blessing Abraham (Genesis 14:18). Abraham gave Hagar and Ishmael bread and water when sending them away (Genesis 21:14). Jeremiah, while imprisoned, received a daily ration of “a round loaf of bread” (Jeremiah 37:21). Jesus Christ miraculously multiplied bread to feed large crowds on two occasions (Matthew 14:14-21; 15:32-37). He also taught His followers to pray for “bread for the day according to the day’s requirement” (Luke 11:3). The psalmist fittingly recognized Jehovah as the provider of “bread that sustains the very heart of mortal man” (Psalm 104:15).

Figurative Use of Bread

The Bible uses “bread” in several figurative ways. Joshua and Caleb told the Israelites that the inhabitants of Canaan “are bread to us,” indicating that they could easily conquer them (Numbers 14:9). Psalm 80:5 speaks of Israel eating “the bread of tears” due to divine disfavor. Isaiah 30:20 refers to experiencing “bread in the form of distress and water in the form of oppression” under siege conditions. Proverbs 4:14-17 describes the wicked as those who “do not sleep unless they do badness” and “have fed themselves with the bread of wickedness.” Proverbs 20:17 warns that “Bread gained by falsehood is pleasurable to a man, but afterward his mouth will be filled with gravel,” while Proverbs 31:27 commends the industrious wife who “does not eat the bread of laziness.”

In a positive figurative sense, Isaiah 55:2 emphasizes the importance of Jehovah’s spiritual provisions over material things, urging people to “eat what is good” and find delight in spiritual nourishment.

Jesus Christ as the Bread of Life

When instituting the meal to commemorate His death, Jesus took bread, blessed it, broke it, and said, “Take, eat. This means my body” (Matthew 26:26). This act symbolized His body given for the sake of humanity (Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:23-24). About a year before this, Jesus contrasted “bread that comes down from heaven” with the manna eaten by the Israelites, declaring, “I am the bread of life” (John 6:48-51). He explained that He was “the living bread that came down from heaven” and that anyone who eats of this bread will live forever. This ‘eating’ is figurative, referring to exercising faith in Jesus’ perfect human sacrifice (John 6:40). Upon His ascension, Jesus presented the merit of His ransom sacrifice to His Father, Jehovah, enabling Him to grant life to obedient mankind.

Bread in Historical and Religious Contexts

Bread’s importance is evident in its integration into various religious practices and daily life events. During times of distress, bread often symbolized basic sustenance provided by God or the lack thereof as a form of divine judgment. In prophetic literature, bread is frequently used to illustrate spiritual truths and moral lessons. For instance, in Ezekiel 4:16-17, bread symbolizes scarcity and famine as a sign of God’s judgment on Jerusalem.

The Role of Bread in Biblical Narratives

Bread also plays a significant role in many biblical narratives, emphasizing its essential nature in ancient culture. For example, in the story of Elijah and the widow of Zarephath, the miracle of the endless supply of flour and oil ensured that they had bread to sustain them during a severe famine (1 Kings 17:8-16). Similarly, during the feeding of the five thousand, the multiplication of loaves demonstrated Jesus’ divine authority and compassion (John 6:1-14).

Moreover, the Passover celebration prominently features unleavened bread, symbolizing the haste with which the Israelites left Egypt and their subsequent liberation (Exodus 12:39). This practice continues to hold significant meaning in Jewish tradition and underscores the role of bread in religious observance.

Bread as a Symbol of Provision and Dependence

Throughout the Scriptures, bread serves as a symbol of God’s provision and the dependence of humanity on His sustenance. The manna provided in the wilderness is a prime example of God’s direct intervention to meet the physical needs of the Israelites (Exodus 16:4-35). Jesus’ teaching in the Lord’s Prayer, asking for daily bread, highlights the importance of trusting in God for daily needs (Matthew 6:11).

In the New Testament, Jesus’ declaration as the “bread of life” further expands this symbolism, emphasizing spiritual nourishment and eternal life through Him (John 6:35). This theme resonates throughout the Bible, portraying God as the ultimate provider who meets both physical and spiritual needs.

Theological Implications of Bread

Theological reflections on bread in the Bible reveal deeper truths about God’s relationship with His people. The provision of bread signifies God’s ongoing care and faithfulness, while the breaking of bread in the New Testament points to the sacrificial love of Christ. The metaphor of bread encapsulates themes of sustenance, community, and covenant, reinforcing the interconnectedness of physical sustenance and spiritual well-being.

The portrayal of bread in Scripture also underscores the importance of gratitude and reliance on God. In Deuteronomy 8:3, Moses reminds the Israelites that man does not live by bread alone but by every word that comes from the mouth of Jehovah, linking physical sustenance to spiritual dependence.

The multifaceted representation of bread in the Bible highlights its significance in ancient culture and its profound theological implications. From daily sustenance to spiritual nourishment, bread serves as a powerful symbol of God’s provision and care. Understanding the various contexts and meanings of bread in Scripture enriches our appreciation of its role in biblical narratives and its enduring spiritual significance.

Baking in Biblical Times: A Detailed Exploration

The Role of Baking in Ancient Culture

Baking, which means to cook or harden by dry heat, was an essential activity in ancient households. The Hebrew term for “bake” is ʼa·phahʹ, which is the root of ʼo·phehʹ (baker) as seen in Genesis 19:3 and 40:2. Another Hebrew word for “bake” is ʽugh, related to ʽu·ghahʹ, meaning “round cake” (Genesis 18:6). Baking was predominantly a domestic duty performed by women, although in larger households, slaves often did the baking. Samuel warned the Israelites that a human king would take their daughters to serve as ointment mixers, cooks, and bakers (1 Samuel 8:13). However, men also engaged in baking, as illustrated by Lot, who baked unleavened cakes for the angels visiting him in Sodom (Genesis 19:1-3).

Methods of Baking

In biblical times, bread was generally baked in ovens. Occasionally, baking was done by kindling a fire on stones. Once heated, the cinders were swept aside, and the dough was placed on the stones, turned until thoroughly baked (Hosea 7:8). Travelers baked coarse bread in a shallow pit filled with hot pebbles. After the embers were removed, dough was laid on the stones and turned as needed (1 Kings 19:6).

Grain offerings in Israel often involved baking. These offerings included items baked in ovens, on griddles, or in deep-fat kettles (Leviticus 2:4-7). The griddle was a thick pottery plate with depressions, similar to a modern waffle iron, though iron griddles were also used (Ezekiel 4:3).

Professional Bakers and Commercial Baking

Professional bakers were integral to city life. During Jeremiah’s imprisonment in the Courtyard of the Guard in Jerusalem, he received a daily ration of bread from “the street of the bakers” until supplies ran out (Jeremiah 37:21). This indicates that bakers occupied a specific area in Jerusalem. When Jerusalem’s walls were restored under Nehemiah, the “Tower of the Bake Ovens” was also repaired (Nehemiah 3:11; 12:38). This tower likely got its name from the commercial ovens located there.

Disk-shaped platter used to form or bake cakes of bread, from a fifteenth-century B.C.E. shrine at Lachish. The holes on the underside (right) are not bored through the pottery tray. (Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums)

The Royal Baker in Egypt

In ancient Egypt, the royal baker held a significant position. A wall painting from the tomb of Ramses III in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes depicts an Egyptian royal bakery, showing the kneading of dough with feet, cake making, and oven preparation. In Genesis, an Egyptian royal baker gained notoriety for offending the king and being imprisoned. He dreamt of carrying three baskets of bread on his head, with birds eating from the top basket. Joseph interpreted the dream, predicting the baker’s execution by hanging, which was fulfilled three days later (Genesis 40:1-3, 16-22).

Baking and Its Symbolism in Offerings

Baking was also significant in religious offerings. Grain offerings to Jehovah often involved baking, symbolizing dedication and worship. These offerings were baked in ovens, on griddles, or in deep-fat kettles, each method holding symbolic meaning in the ritualistic context (Leviticus 2:4-7).

Unleavened bread, or mats·tsahʹ, was a crucial part of the Passover and the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, symbolizing purity and separation from sin. The absence of leaven, which causes fermentation, represented the haste of the Israelites’ departure from Egypt and their commitment to God (Exodus 12:8, 15, 18).

The Daily Bread

Bread’s central role in daily life is evident from numerous biblical references. It was not only a staple food but also a symbol of sustenance and divine provision. The daily bread given to Jeremiah, the miraculous feeding by Jesus, and the Lord’s Prayer all underscore bread’s importance as a daily necessity (Jeremiah 37:21; Matthew 14:14-21; 15:32-37; 6:11). The psalmist praises Jehovah for providing “bread that sustains the very heart of mortal man” (Psalm 104:15).

Figurative and Spiritual Use of Baking

The Bible frequently uses bread and baking in a figurative sense to convey deeper spiritual truths. Joshua and Caleb’s assertion that the inhabitants of Canaan “are bread to us” implied easy conquest (Numbers 14:9). The “bread of tears” in Psalm 80:5 symbolizes great sorrow and divine disfavor. Isaiah 30:20 describes bread and water of oppression, reflecting hardship and judgment.

Proverbs uses bread metaphorically to depict various aspects of life. The wicked “have fed themselves with the bread of wickedness” (Proverbs 4:14-17), indicating sustenance derived from evil deeds. Bread gained by deceit is initially pleasurable but ultimately disappointing, likened to a mouthful of gravel (Proverbs 20:17). The industrious wife “does not eat the bread of laziness” (Proverbs 31:27), highlighting diligence and virtue.

Isaiah 55:2 contrasts material and spiritual sustenance, urging people to seek Jehovah’s spiritual provisions: “Why do you people keep paying out money for what is not bread, and why is your toil for what results in no satisfaction? Listen intently to me, and eat what is good.”

Jesus Christ as the Bread of Life

In the New Testament, bread takes on profound theological significance. During the Last Supper, Jesus took bread, blessed it, broke it, and said, “Take, eat. This means my body” (Matthew 26:26). This act established a powerful symbol of His sacrifice, representing His body given for humanity (Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:23-24).

Jesus further declared, “I am the bread of life” (John 6:48). He compared Himself to the manna provided to the Israelites, emphasizing that He is the true, living bread from heaven. “If anyone eats of this bread he will live forever; and, for a fact, the bread that I shall give is my flesh in behalf of the life of the world” (John 6:51). This ‘eating’ is figurative, referring to faith in Jesus’ perfect sacrifice (John 6:40).

Bread in Prophetic and Eschatological Contexts

Bread also appears in prophetic contexts, symbolizing divine judgment and blessing. In Ezekiel, baking bread with human excrement was initially commanded to symbolize Israel’s defilement and forthcoming punishment (Ezekiel 4:12). However, God allowed the substitution of cow dung, showing mercy even in judgment (Ezekiel 4:15).

In eschatological contexts, bread signifies the sustenance and fellowship believers will experience in God’s kingdom. The prophetic banquet, where the redeemed will enjoy divine provision, echoes the centrality of bread in sustaining life and fellowship (Isaiah 25:6).

The multifaceted portrayal of baking and bread in the Bible highlights their significance in ancient culture, religious practice, and theological symbolism. From daily sustenance to profound spiritual metaphors, baking and bread serve as enduring symbols of God’s provision, human dependence, and the deeper spiritual truths embedded in Scripture.

Clay figurine of a woman kneading dough, from the Phoenician cemetery at Achzib, 1200–550 B.C.E.

Bread and Baking in Biblical Times: An In-depth Examination

The Significance of Bread in Ancient Culture

Bread, a fundamental staple in the ancient Near East, was essential in the daily diet and religious practices. The cultivation of grains like barley and wheat dates back to as early as 2340 B.C.E. In biblical times, bread made from these grains was a dietary mainstay. Wheaten bread was often reserved for religious ceremonies and the king’s court, as indicated in Exodus 29:2 and 1 Kings 4:22. Conversely, barley bread, though commonly used, was typically associated with the poor (Ezekiel 4:12). Both barley and wheat were prevalent in bread preparation during the Roman period (John 6:9, 13). Special benedictions were recited over bread, reflecting its spiritual significance (Matthew 14:19).

Bread Preparation and Baking Methods

The methods of preparing and baking bread in ancient times remained relatively unchanged over millennia. The process began with mixing flour with water to create dough, which could be immediately baked as unleavened bread or left to rise with yeast. The image provided, depicting a clay figurine from the Iron Age, illustrates the traditional act of kneading dough, emphasizing the manual labor involved in bread-making.

In both pre-biblical and biblical periods, loaves were baked by placing dough on heated flat stones or in clay ovens. These ovens, often shaped like truncated cones with openings at the bottom for stoking the fire, allowed dough to be stuck to the heated walls, producing flat loaves often referred to as cakes. Another method involved using a flat bowl heated over an open fire, with the dough placed on the upper convex side, which had small projections to aid in removing the bread when ready.

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, each household typically prepared bread in their courtyard, a practice that continues in some parts of the East today. Urban areas saw the introduction of new baking ovens, where the baking space was separated from the heating device, allowing for thicker loaves resembling modern bread.

Professional Bakers and Commercial Baking

Professional bakers were integral to ancient cities, particularly in Jerusalem. Jeremiah, during his imprisonment, received daily bread rations from “the street of the bakers,” indicating the presence of commercial bakeries (Jeremiah 37:21). These bakers likely operated from a specific area in the city, and the “Tower of the Bake Ovens” mentioned in Nehemiah’s time suggests a significant concentration of baking activity (Nehemiah 3:11; 12:38).

The Role of Bread in Religious Offerings

Bread’s religious significance is highlighted in various biblical accounts. Grain offerings often involved baked goods, symbolizing dedication to God (Leviticus 2:4-7). Unleavened bread, or mats·tsahʹ, was particularly important during Passover and the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, representing purity and separation from sin (Exodus 12:8, 15, 18).

Bread as a Symbol in Biblical Narratives

Bread frequently appears in biblical narratives, symbolizing sustenance and divine provision. Melchizedek’s offering of bread and wine to Abraham (Genesis 14:18), Hagar and Ishmael’s provision of bread and water (Genesis 21:14), and Jeremiah’s ration of bread (Jeremiah 37:21) underscore its vital role. Jesus’ miracles of multiplying bread to feed thousands further emphasize its significance (Matthew 14:14-21; 15:32-37).

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).