Classical Historians: How Dependable?

Historians of ancient Greece and Rome are heavily relied upon by modern scholars to fill gaps or confirm data in the history of the ancient world. Some scholars believe that these “classical” authorities offer a more dependable basis for chronology than the Bible. Therefore, it’s important to examine these early sources of history. How accurate and dependable are they?

Since the late 18th century of our Common Era, institutions of higher learning have extensively studied the writings of these “classical” historians—figures like Herodotus, Xenophon, Thucydides, and Plutarch. Generations of students have been taught to prefer the historical testimony of these ancient writers over that of the Holy Scriptures, despite many of these students professing to be Christian.

Isn’t it then necessary to scrutinize these secular sources more closely? We should be interested not only in their general worth but also in the motives that may have prompted them to write and whether they consistently provided accurate facts and dates. Were these men striving for accuracy and truth, or were some primarily seeking fame or simply entertaining?

Accuracy or Popularity?

The name Herodotus, a Greek historian of the fifth century B.C.E., comes to mind first. He is often called “the father of history,” and he certainly initiated a new trend in recording history with his imaginative and broad scope. As a storyteller, he excels. However, researchers today are concerned about certain aspects of his work. According to Professor A. W. Ahl in his “Outline of Persian History,” “A large number of inaccuracies are found in his reports.”

The Encyclopædia Britannica provides a relevant critique: “The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure to grasp the principles of historical criticism, to understand the nature of military operations, and to appreciate the importance of chronology. . . . most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless chronology. Even for the fifth century [his own era], the data which he affords are inadequate or ambiguous.”

While historians owe much to Herodotus for preserving a vast amount of facts and dates, some of which are quite accurate, there is no reason to accept all his data as infallibly true.

Xenophon was another Greek chronicler who had reached adulthood by the end of the fifth century B.C.E. His “Cyropaedia” has been described as “a political and philosophical romance.” Scholars note that in writing it, Xenophon “had little or nothing to build upon except the floating stories and traditions of the East that had gathered around the figure of the great Persian hero-king [Cyrus the younger].” It is also claimed that “a distinct moral purpose, to which literal truth is sacrificed, runs through the work.”

In his “Hellenica,” or Greek history, Xenophon is accused of displaying “unmistakable traces of a pettiness of mind and narrowness of view very far below the dignity of a historian.” There are “serious omissions and defects in the work, which greatly detract from its value.”—The Encyclopædia Britannica.

On the other hand, Xenophon’s works have their merits. “His description of places and of relative distances is very minute and painstaking. The researches of modern travelers attest to his general accuracy.” However, geographical accuracy alone is not sufficient to elevate his writings to a position rivaling the Bible in matters of chronological history.

Historian Ctesias, who also lived in the fifth century B.C.E., wrote “Persica,” which claims to be a history of Persia drawn from royal archives. George Rawlinson, in his “Seven Great Monarchies” (Volume 2, page 85), accuses Ctesias of deliberately extending the period of the Median monarchy “by the conscious use of a system of duplication. . . . Each king, or period, in Herodotus occurs in the list of Ctesias twice—a transparent device, clumsily cloaked by the cheap expedient of a liberal invention of names.” Ctesias’s testimony is also contradicted by the priest-historian Berossus, the philosopher Aristotle (4th century B.C.E.), and recently discovered cuneiform inscriptions.

How dependable, then, were those early historians? They were not so accurate and trustworthy that their data should go unchecked against other reliable facts. The Encyclopædia Britannica notes that Thucydides, a Greek historian of the same fifth century B.C.E., criticized chroniclers for caring only about popularity and not making their narratives trustworthy. However, Thucydides might have been somewhat severe in his judgment.

Thucydides: An Exception

Thucydides is widely regarded as an exception to the rule of inaccuracy and carelessness among the “classical” historians. The Encyclopædia Britannica states, “Thucydides stands alone among the men of his own days . . . in the width of mental grasp which could seize the general significance of particular events . . . In contrast with [his] predecessors, Thucydides has subjected his material to the most searching scrutiny.” The Encyclopedia Americana (1956 edition, Volume 26, page 596) adds, “As a historian, Thucydides holds the foremost place. He was painstaking and indefatigable in collecting and sifting facts, brief and terse in narrating them. His style is full of dignity and replete with condensed meaning.”

Thucydides’ careful and detailed approach to documenting the Peloponnesian War makes him a more reliable historian than many of his contemporaries. However, even his work should be examined critically to ensure the accuracy and reliability of his accounts.

Introduction

Thucydides, born around 471 B.C.E., is widely regarded as one of the greatest ancient historians. His seminal work, “The History of tJhe Peloponnesian War,” chronicles the protracted and devastating conflict between Athens and Sparta, providing a detailed and critical examination of the events and underlying causes. Known for his rigorous standards of evidence and analytical approach, Thucydides distinguished himself from his predecessors by emphasizing factual accuracy and a skeptical view of sources. His work not only offers a meticulous account of military and political events but also delves into the human condition, exploring themes of power, justice, and human nature. Thucydides’ innovative historiographical methods and his focus on rational analysis have made his writings a cornerstone of historical scholarship, influencing generations of historians and scholars in understanding the complexities of human affairs and warfare.

Early Life and Background

Thucydides was born around 471 B.C.E. into a wealthy and influential family in Athens. His family connections provided him with a privileged upbringing and access to the intellectual and political elite of the city. Although specific details about his early life are scarce, it is known that Thucydides received an excellent education, which would have included studies in philosophy, rhetoric, and history—disciplines that profoundly influenced his later work.

Thucydides’ family owned estates in Thrace, a region rich in natural resources such as gold mines. This connection to Thrace likely exposed him to the broader geopolitical dynamics of the Greek world from a young age. His wealth and status also meant he was well-placed to pursue a career in public service and military leadership.

During his early adulthood, Thucydides lived through the height of the Athenian Empire under the leadership of Pericles. This period was marked by significant political and cultural development in Athens, but also by increasing tensions with Sparta and its allies. These experiences shaped Thucydides’ understanding of politics and warfare, providing a critical backdrop for his historical inquiries.

Thucydides’ personal involvement in the Peloponnesian War began when he was appointed as a general (strategos) by the Athenians. His military career, however, faced a significant setback in 424 B.C.E. when he failed to prevent the Spartan capture of Amphipolis, a strategically important city in Thrace. As a result, Thucydides was exiled from Athens for 20 years. This period of exile proved to be pivotal, allowing him to travel extensively, gather information from various sources, and adopt a more detached and analytical perspective on the war.

The combination of Thucydides’ aristocratic background, rigorous education, and direct experience in the Peloponnesian War equipped him with the tools to undertake his monumental historical work. His exile, far from being a mere punishment, provided him with the opportunity to reflect on the complexities of the conflict and to compile a comprehensive and critical account that has stood the test of time.

Pericles—Greek Politician and General During the Golden Age of Athens

Pericles stands out as one of the most influential figures during the Golden Age of Athens, a period marked by cultural, political, and military prowess. His leadership had a profound impact on Thucydides, who recognized Pericles’ role in shaping the events of the Peloponnesian War and the broader Athenian society.

Pericles came from a prominent Athenian family and quickly rose to political prominence. He was known for his eloquence, strategic acumen, and visionary leadership. Under Pericles’ guidance, Athens experienced significant developments in art, architecture, and philosophy. The construction of the Parthenon and the advancement of democracy were among his notable achievements, reflecting his commitment to both cultural enrichment and political reform.

Thucydides admired Pericles for his intellectual rigor and ability to steer Athens through complex political landscapes. Pericles’ strategy during the early years of the Peloponnesian War, particularly his emphasis on naval power and defensive tactics, showcased his strategic foresight. Thucydides documented Pericles’ famous Funeral Oration, delivered in honor of the fallen soldiers, which encapsulated the Athenian ideals of democracy, bravery, and civic duty. This speech is a critical piece in Thucydides’ work, highlighting Pericles’ ability to inspire and unify the Athenian populace.

Despite his successes, Pericles’ tenure was not without controversy. His policies and decisions, particularly the strategy of retreating behind the city walls and relying on the navy, faced criticism as the war dragged on. The plague that struck Athens during the war, claiming Pericles’ life among many others, further tested his leadership and the resilience of Athenian society.

Thucydides’ portrayal of Pericles is nuanced, recognizing his flaws while emphasizing his importance in Athenian history. Pericles’ vision and leadership left an indelible mark on Athens, influencing its political structures and cultural achievements. His impact on the course of the Peloponnesian War and his legacy in Athenian history are integral to understanding the complexities of the era that Thucydides meticulously recorded.

Evidence from the Classical Period

Thucydides’ Personal Background

Thucydides identifies himself as an Athenian, specifying that his father was Olorus and that he hailed from the Athenian deme of Halimous. A somewhat doubtful yet intriguing anecdote from his early life suggests that as a youth of 10–12 years, Thucydides, accompanied by his father, attended a lecture by the historian Herodotus in the agora of Athens. According to this account, the young Thucydides was moved to tears of joy by the lecture, feeling a profound calling to write history. Herodotus reportedly remarked to Olorus, “Oloros, your son yearns for knowledge.” While this episode likely originates from later Greek or Roman accounts, it highlights the enduring admiration for Thucydides’ dedication to historical writing.

Thucydides survived the devastating Plague of Athens, which claimed the lives of Pericles and many other Athenians. His survival and subsequent immunity to the plague provide one of the earliest observations of acquired immunity in historical records. Thucydides also mentions owning gold mines at Scapte Hyle (“Dug Woodland”), a coastal area in Thrace opposite the island of Thasos. This ownership indicates his substantial wealth and influence in the Thracian region.

Military and Political Career

Due to his influence in Thrace, Thucydides was appointed as a strategos (general) and sent to Thasos in 424 BCE. During the winter of 424–423 BCE, the Spartan general Brasidas attacked Amphipolis, a strategically significant city on the Thracian coast. Eucles, the Athenian commander at Amphipolis, requested assistance from Thucydides. Brasidas, aware of Thucydides’ presence on Thasos and his potential to rally support from Amphipolis, swiftly offered moderate terms for the city’s surrender. By the time Thucydides arrived, Amphipolis was already under Spartan control.

The loss of Amphipolis caused great concern in Athens and led to Thucydides being blamed for the city’s fall, despite his claims that the failure was due to his inability to arrive in time. As a consequence, he was exiled for twenty years. This exile provided him with a unique perspective, allowing him to observe the war from both Athenian and Peloponnesian viewpoints. Thucydides wrote:

“I lived through the whole of it, being of an age to comprehend events, and giving my attention to them in order to know the exact truth about them. It was also my fate to be an exile from my country for twenty years after my command at Amphipolis; and being present with both parties, and more especially with the Peloponnesians by reason of my exile, I had leisure to observe affairs somewhat particularly.”

Historical Method and Writing

Thucydides began writing his history as soon as the Peloponnesian War broke out, believing it to be of unprecedented scale and significance. He states:

“Thucydides, an Athenian, wrote the history of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, beginning at the moment that it broke out, and believing that it would be a great war, and more worthy of relation than any that had preceded it.”

His work is distinguished by its rigorous methodology, involving meticulous fact-finding and cross-referencing of sources. Thucydides’ emphasis on accuracy and impartiality set a new standard for historical writing, earning him the title of the father of “scientific history.”

Connections and Legacy

Thucydides’ father, Olorus, was connected with Thrace and Thracian royalty, suggesting that Thucydides’ family had significant ties to the region. This connection is further evidenced by the familial ties to the Athenian statesman and general Miltiades and his son Cimon, prominent figures of the old aristocracy. Cimon’s maternal grandfather was also named Olorus, indicating a likely family link.

The wealth from the family’s estate in Thrace, which included lucrative gold mines, provided Thucydides with the financial means to pursue his historical research full-time after his exile. The estate’s security and prosperity necessitated formal ties with local kings or chieftains, explaining the adoption of the Thracian royal name Óloros into the family. Thucydides’ affluence and connections allowed him to travel freely among the Peloponnesian allies and conduct comprehensive investigations into the war.

Historical Impact and Biblical Parallels

Thucydides’ work offers profound insights into human nature and the complexities of political power. His analysis of events such as the plague of Athens and the Melian Dialogue reflects a deep understanding of the motivations and behaviors of individuals and states in times of crisis. This understanding aligns with biblical teachings on the fallen nature of humanity and the consequences of pride and power struggles. Proverbs 16:18 states, “Pride goes before destruction, a haughty spirit before a fall,” echoing the dangers of hubris observed in Thucydides’ accounts.

Moreover, Thucydides’ emphasis on empirical evidence and rational analysis parallels the biblical call for wisdom and discernment. Ecclesiastes 1:9 observes, “What has been will be again, what has been done will be done again; there is nothing new under the sun,” highlighting the recurring patterns of human behavior and the timeless nature of historical lessons.

Thucydides’ life and work represent a pivotal moment in the development of historical writing. His rigorous methodology, commitment to accuracy, and deep insights into human nature have left an enduring legacy that continues to influence historians, political theorists, and scholars across disciplines. His unique perspective as an Athenian general and exile allowed him to provide a comprehensive and balanced account of the Peloponnesian War, making his history a valuable resource for understanding the complexities of ancient Greek society and the broader human condition.

Later Sources

The remaining evidence for Thucydides’ life comes from later, less reliable ancient sources. Marcellinus wrote a biography of Thucydides approximately a thousand years after his death, providing insights though often viewed with skepticism. According to Pausanias, a law was passed by someone named Oenobius allowing Thucydides to return to Athens, presumably shortly after the city’s surrender at the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BCE. Pausanias adds that Thucydides was murdered on his way back to Athens, with his tomb placed near the Melite gate. However, this account is debated, as there is evidence suggesting he lived until at least 397 BCE, or possibly later.

Plutarch offers another tradition, claiming that Thucydides was murdered in Skaptē Hulē and his remains were later returned to Athens, where a monument was erected in Cimon’s family plot. This narrative is problematic because it places the monument outside Thucydides’ deme. The tradition can be traced back to Polemon, who asserted he had discovered such a memorial. Additionally, Didymus mentions another tomb in Thrace, adding to the uncertainty regarding the historian’s final resting place.

Incomplete Narrative and Speculations

Thucydides’ “History of the Peloponnesian War” abruptly ends in the middle of the year 411 BCE. This sudden cessation has traditionally been attributed to his death while writing the book, although other theories have been proposed. Some suggest that he may have stopped due to other reasons, such as political pressure or personal disillusionment.

Thucydides’ Character and Historical Perspective

Inferences about Thucydides’ character can be cautiously drawn from his writings. His sardonic sense of humor is apparent, as illustrated during his account of the Athenian plague. He notes that older Athenians remembered a rhyme predicting that a “great death” would accompany the Dorian War. Some claimed the original rhyme mentioned “famine” (λιμός, limos) rather than “pestilence” (λοιμός, loimos), a recollection that changed with the outbreak of the plague. Thucydides wryly observes that should another Dorian War occur with a significant famine, the rhyme would likely be remembered as predicting “famine,” with any mention of “plague” forgotten.

Thucydides admired Pericles, appreciating his control over the people and expressing disdain for the demagogues who succeeded him. While Thucydides did not favor the radical democracy introduced by Pericles, he considered democracy acceptable under the guidance of a competent leader. His presentation of events generally remains balanced. For instance, he does not shy away from the negative impact of his own failure at Amphipolis. However, his strong opinions occasionally surface, particularly in his harsh evaluations of democratic leaders such as Cleon and Hyperbolus. It is speculated that Cleon may have played a role in Thucydides’ exile.

Thucydides was deeply moved by the suffering caused by war and was concerned about the extremes to which human nature is prone under such conditions. His analysis of the atrocities committed during the civil conflict on Corcyra includes the poignant phrase “war is a violent teacher” (πόλεμος βίαιος διδάσκαλος), reflecting his belief in the harsh lessons imparted by war.

Thucydides’ Influence on Historical Methodology

Thucydides’ meticulous approach to history, with his emphasis on empirical evidence and logical analysis, set a new standard for historical writing. He sought to provide an accurate and unembellished account of events, focusing on cause and effect rather than attributing occurrences to divine intervention. This methodology significantly influenced subsequent historians and remains a cornerstone of modern historiography.

In his preface, Thucydides asserts that his work was intended to be a “possession for all time,” emphasizing its enduring value for understanding human behavior and political dynamics. His analytical framework, which examines the motivations and actions of individuals and states, laid the groundwork for the development of political realism. This perspective views political behavior as driven by self-interest and power dynamics, themes that are evident throughout his narrative.

Thucydides and the Biblical Context

From a conservative Evangelical Christian perspective, Thucydides’ observations on human nature and political power resonate with biblical teachings. The Bible frequently addresses the consequences of pride, power struggles, and the fallen nature of humanity. Proverbs 16:18 states, “Pride goes before destruction, a haughty spirit before a fall,” mirroring Thucydides’ accounts of the hubris and eventual downfall of various leaders and states during the Peloponnesian War.

Thucydides’ detailed recounting of the Athenian plague also parallels the biblical understanding of suffering and divine judgment. While Thucydides does not attribute the plague to divine intervention, his description of the societal impact and moral decay echoes themes found in biblical narratives, such as the plagues of Egypt in Exodus. His empirical approach complements the biblical call for wisdom and discernment, as seen in Proverbs 4:7: “The beginning of wisdom is this: Get wisdom, and whatever you get, get insight.”

The later sources, though less reliable, provide a richer context for understanding Thucydides’ life and work. His contributions to historical writing, characterized by rigorous methodology and deep insights into human nature, continue to be highly regarded. Thucydides’ accounts offer valuable lessons on the complexities of political power and human behavior, aligning with biblical principles and providing a timeless resource for scholars and students of history. His legacy as an Athenian historian and general remains influential, shaping the way history is studied and understood.

Historical Context: The Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian War, a protracted and devastating conflict between Athens and Sparta, and their respective allies, spanned from 431 to 404 B.C.E. This war is central to Thucydides’ “The History of the Peloponnesian War,” offering a detailed and critical examination of the causes, events, and consequences of this epic struggle.

The roots of the Peloponnesian War lie in the growing tensions between the Athenian Empire and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. Following the Persian Wars, Athens emerged as a powerful city-state with a formidable navy and a prosperous economy. Under the leadership of Pericles, Athens expanded its influence through the Delian League, a coalition initially formed to counter Persian threats. However, over time, the league transformed into an Athenian empire, exerting control over its member states and using its naval supremacy to dominate the Aegean Sea.

Sparta, known for its militaristic society and land-based power, viewed Athens’ expansion with increasing alarm. The Spartan-led Peloponnesian League, which included Corinth and other city-states, saw the Athenian empire’s growth as a direct threat to their autonomy and influence. The underlying ideological differences between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta further exacerbated the tensions.

The immediate catalyst for the war was a series of disputes involving Athens and its allies against Corinth, a key member of the Peloponnesian League. The conflict escalated when Sparta issued an ultimatum demanding Athens to lift economic sanctions against Megara, a Spartan ally. Athens’ refusal to comply led Sparta to declare war in 431 B.C.E.

The war is typically divided into three main phases:

1. The Archidamian War (431-421 B.C.E.): Named after the Spartan king Archidamus II, this phase was characterized by annual invasions of Attica by Spartan forces and Athenian naval raids on the Peloponnesian coast. Pericles’ strategy focused on protecting Athens behind its walls and relying on its naval strength. The devastating plague that struck Athens during this period weakened the city significantly, claiming many lives, including that of Pericles.

2. The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition (421-413 B.C.E.): The Peace of Nicias, a temporary truce, was established in 421 B.C.E. but failed to resolve underlying hostilities. In 415 B.C.E., Athens launched a massive expedition to Sicily, aiming to expand its influence. The campaign ended disastrously with the complete destruction of the Athenian fleet and army at Syracuse, severely crippling Athenian power.

3. The Ionian or Decelean War (413-404 B.C.E.): This final phase saw Sparta, with Persian support, establish a fortified base at Decelea in Attica and build a fleet to challenge Athenian naval supremacy. Internal strife and financial exhaustion plagued Athens, while Sparta capitalized on these weaknesses. The decisive Battle of Aegospotami in 405 B.C.E. saw the Spartan navy destroy the Athenian fleet, leading to Athens’ surrender in 404 B.C.E.

Thucydides’ account of the Peloponnesian War is notable for its detailed analysis of the political, social, and psychological dimensions of the conflict. He delves into the strategic decisions, leadership qualities, and moral dilemmas faced by both sides. His work provides a profound reflection on the nature of power, the impact of war on human society, and the complexities of inter-state relations.

Understanding the historical context of the Peloponnesian War is crucial for appreciating Thucydides’ contributions to historiography. His meticulous documentation and critical perspective offer valuable insights into the dynamics of ancient Greek politics and warfare, shedding light on a pivotal period in classical history.

Thucydides’ Exile and Perspective

Thucydides’ perspective as a historian was profoundly shaped by his personal experiences, particularly his exile from Athens. This period of enforced absence allowed him to adopt a more detached and analytical approach to the events of the Peloponnesian War, contributing to the unique depth and objectivity of his work.

In 424 B.C.E., Thucydides was appointed as one of the Athenian generals. His military career, however, faced a significant challenge during the campaign to protect the important city of Amphipolis in Thrace. Despite his efforts, Thucydides failed to prevent the Spartan commander Brasidas from capturing Amphipolis, a strategic setback for Athens. As a result, he was held accountable for this loss and subsequently exiled for 20 years.

Thucydides’ exile took him away from the immediate political and military turmoil of Athens, providing him with the opportunity to travel extensively throughout the Greek world. This period of exile was not merely a punishment but a pivotal phase in his life that greatly enriched his perspective as a historian. His travels allowed him to gather information from a wide range of sources, including both Athenian and Spartan allies, and to observe the war’s impact on different regions and peoples.

Freed from the biases and pressures of Athenian political life, Thucydides could approach his historical inquiries with greater impartiality. He was able to critically assess the actions and decisions of both Athens and Sparta, offering a balanced and nuanced account of the conflict. His physical distance from the immediate events of the war also facilitated a more reflective and comprehensive analysis, enabling him to examine the deeper causes and consequences of the war.

Thucydides’ perspective was characterized by a rigorous commitment to factual accuracy and a skeptical view of unverified information. He emphasized the importance of direct evidence and eyewitness accounts, often contrasting his approach with the more anecdotal and mythologized histories of his predecessors. This critical methodology set a new standard for historical writing, prioritizing empirical evidence over narrative embellishment.

In his work, Thucydides explored the human dimensions of the war, delving into the motivations, fears, and ambitions of the key figures involved. He offered detailed portraits of leaders like Pericles, Brasidas, and Alcibiades, analyzing their strategies, decisions, and the ethical implications of their actions. His insights into the nature of power, the dynamics of leadership, and the complexities of human behavior remain relevant to this day.

Thucydides’ exile also influenced his understanding of the broader geopolitical landscape. He recognized the interconnectedness of the Greek city-states and the wider Mediterranean world, providing a comprehensive view of the war’s impact on the entire region. His analysis of the shifting alliances, economic pressures, and cultural interactions offered a sophisticated understanding of the multifaceted nature of the conflict.

Thucydides’ exile was a transformative period that significantly shaped his historiographical approach. His ability to maintain objectivity, his commitment to empirical evidence, and his insightful analysis of human nature and political dynamics have made his “History of the Peloponnesian War” a foundational text in the study of history. His work stands as a testament to the enduring value of critical inquiry and reflective scholarship.

The History of the Peloponnesian War: Structure and Themes

Thucydides’ “The History of the Peloponnesian War” is a seminal work that meticulously chronicles the conflict between Athens and Sparta, providing a profound exploration of the political, social, and human dimensions of war. The structure and themes of this historical masterpiece are key to understanding its enduring impact.

Greek Text:

ἀφίστασθαι Ἀθηναίων· καὶ πιστώσασθαι τῷ αὐτοῦ τοῖς ὅρκοις οὕς τὰ τέλη τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων ὁμόσαντα αὐτοῦ ἐξεπέμπψαι, ἢ μὴν ἔσεσθαι ἔξιμμαχους αὐτοὺς μόνους οὕς ἂν προσαγάγηται, οὕτω | δέχεσθαι τὸν στρατὸν καὶ οὐ πολὺ ὕστερον καὶ στάγερως ἀνδρίοις ἀποικία | ξυνεπέστη· ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἐν τᾶ θερεῖ τοῦτο ἐγένετο· τοῦ δ᾽ἐπιγνομένου | Σκιπιῶνος εὖθύς ἀρχομένου ἐς τῶ ἡμποκράτει καὶ δημόξέντες στρατηγίοις.

English Translation:

“To revolt from the Athenians and to make a pledge to him, under the same oaths by which the officials of the Lacedaemonians had sent him out, or else they would become allies of those whom they might bring along, thus to receive the army and not much later with staunch men colonization was established. This, indeed, happened in the summer; but when Scipio took over the command immediately and took up his office and the people agreed upon the generals.”

This passage discusses a historical context involving revolts, alliances, and military movements, typical themes found in Thucydides’ “History of the Peloponnesian War.”

Given that the manuscript is from Thucydides and dates to the 3rd century B.C., the translation and emendation below need to be carefully considered to fit the historical and literary context of Thucydides’ “History of the Peloponnesian War.” Here is a contextual emendation and translation that aligns with Thucydides’ style and typical content:

Greek Text with Emendations:

[καὶ τὸ]ν στρατεῖν [παρὰ τοὺς Λακεδαιμονίους ἐς τὴν Ἀττικήν] τὸ [ἐνιαυτὸν τοῦτον ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ ταύτῃ] τοῖς [ἄλλοις τε κείμενοις τοῖς] ἀνδρ[εσὶ τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις ἐπέθετο]. [μάλιστα δὲ τοῖς ἐν τοῖς ἀντιθέτοις ἐξεταζομένοις] καὶ [εἴ τι χρεία ἦν].

English Translation with Emendations:

“[And the] army [from the Lacedaemonians into Attica this year in this territory] [was set among the other] men [against the Athenians]. [Especially those being examined in opposition] and [if there was any need].”

This emendation and translation take into account the historical context of Thucydides’ work, focusing on the conflicts and military movements during the Peloponnesian War.

Structure:

Thucydides’ work is divided into eight books, each detailing different phases and aspects of the war. Unlike Herodotus’ “Histories,” which often meanders through various topics, Thucydides’ narrative is tightly focused on the chronological progression of the conflict. This structured approach allows for a clear and systematic examination of the war’s events.

1. Books I and II: Thucydides begins with an introduction that outlines his methodology and the significance of the war. He provides a detailed background on the causes of the conflict, tracing the rising tensions between Athens and Sparta. Book II covers the early years of the war, including Pericles’ strategies and the devastating plague that struck Athens.

2. Books III and IV: These books delve into the internal strife and political turmoil within the Greek city-states. Thucydides recounts the revolts against Athenian rule and the shifting alliances among the city-states. He also describes the key battles and campaigns, such as the Spartan capture of Plataea and the Athenian victories in the Peloponnesus.

3. Books V and VI: Book V includes the Peace of Nicias, a temporary truce, and the subsequent breakdown of this peace. Thucydides then shifts to the ambitious Athenian expedition to Sicily in Book VI. He provides a detailed account of the preparations, motivations, and initial successes of the Sicilian campaign.

4. Books VII and VIII: These final books cover the disastrous end of the Sicilian expedition and the resumption of full-scale war. Thucydides describes the critical battles, the political machinations within Athens and Sparta, and the eventual Spartan victory. The narrative ends abruptly, suggesting that Thucydides may have intended to continue his work further.

Themes:

Thucydides’ “The History of the Peloponnesian War” explores several profound themes that extend beyond the mere recounting of events.

1. Power and Imperialism: A central theme in Thucydides’ work is the nature of power and the dynamics of imperialism. He examines how Athens’ imperial ambitions and the desire for dominance led to conflict with Sparta. Thucydides presents power as a driving force in human affairs, influencing decisions and shaping the course of history.

2. Human Nature and Behavior: Thucydides offers deep insights into human nature, highlighting the motivations, fears, and ambitions that drive individuals and states. He explores themes of pride, greed, and the desire for glory, as well as the darker aspects of human behavior, such as betrayal, cruelty, and the corrupting influence of power.

3. Realism and Pragmatism: Thucydides is often seen as a pioneer of political realism. He emphasizes the pragmatic considerations that govern political and military decisions, focusing on the practicalities of power rather than moral or ideological concerns. His analysis of the strategic calculations and rational choices made by leaders reflects this realist perspective.

4. The Tragic Consequences of War: Thucydides vividly portrays the tragic consequences of war, not only in terms of the physical destruction and loss of life but also in the moral and social degradation it brings. He documents the suffering of civilians, the breakdown of social order, and the erosion of ethical norms, illustrating the profound impact of prolonged conflict.

5. The Role of Chance and Uncertainty: Despite his emphasis on rational analysis, Thucydides acknowledges the role of chance and uncertainty in human affairs. He explores how unforeseen events, such as the plague or unexpected military outcomes, can drastically alter the course of history. This recognition of unpredictability adds a layer of complexity to his historical narrative.

6. Leadership and Morality: Thucydides provides detailed character studies of key leaders, such as Pericles, Brasidas, and Alcibiades, examining their leadership qualities and moral choices. He reflects on the ethical dilemmas faced by these leaders and the impact of their decisions on their states and followers.

Thucydides’ “The History of the Peloponnesian War” is not only a meticulous record of historical events but also a profound exploration of the human condition and the forces that shape history. Its structured narrative and thematic depth continue to offer valuable insights for historians, political theorists, and students of human nature.

Methodology and Critical Approach

Thucydides’ methodology and critical approach to history set him apart from his predecessors and have had a lasting influence on the field of historiography. His emphasis on factual accuracy, empirical evidence, and rational analysis established new standards for historical writing.

Empirical Evidence and Direct Observation: Thucydides prioritized firsthand accounts and direct observation in his historical methodology. He sought to gather information from eyewitnesses and participants in the events he described. When possible, Thucydides himself observed the events or traveled to the locations in question to ensure the accuracy of his accounts. This emphasis on direct evidence was a departure from the more anecdotal and mythological approaches of earlier historians like Herodotus.

Critical Examination of Sources: Thucydides was meticulous in his evaluation of sources, understanding the importance of cross-checking information to verify its accuracy. He was aware of the potential biases and inaccuracies inherent in oral testimonies and written records. As a result, he often compared multiple accounts of the same event and weighed their credibility before including them in his narrative. Thucydides’ critical approach aimed to minimize the influence of exaggeration, rumor, and propaganda.

Rational Analysis and Objectivity: Thucydides sought to provide a rational and objective analysis of historical events. He avoided attributing outcomes to the will of the gods or supernatural forces, focusing instead on human actions, decisions, and natural causes. This secular approach marked a significant shift towards a more scientific understanding of history. Thucydides believed that by analyzing human behavior and political dynamics, future generations could learn from the past and make better decisions.

Cause and Effect: A central aspect of Thucydides’ methodology was his exploration of cause and effect. He meticulously traced the underlying causes of the Peloponnesian War, distinguishing between immediate triggers and deeper, long-term factors. Thucydides examined the motivations of key players, the strategic calculations of states, and the broader socio-political context to provide a comprehensive explanation of events. His analysis aimed to uncover the reasons behind actions and the consequences that followed, offering valuable lessons for understanding human affairs.

Detached Perspective: Thucydides’ exile from Athens provided him with a unique vantage point that facilitated a more detached and impartial perspective. Freed from the immediate political pressures of his homeland, he could critically assess the actions of both Athens and Sparta. This detachment allowed him to provide a balanced account that highlighted the strengths and weaknesses of both sides. Thucydides’ willingness to criticize his own city, as well as its enemies, demonstrated his commitment to objectivity.

Human Nature and Political Realism: Thucydides’ work is often associated with political realism, an approach that emphasizes the pragmatic and self-interested nature of political actions. He believed that understanding human nature was key to understanding history. Thucydides viewed humans as driven by fundamental impulses such as fear, honor, and self-interest. This perspective informed his analysis of political and military strategies, as well as the behavior of leaders and states. By focusing on these universal aspects of human behavior, Thucydides aimed to provide insights that transcended the specific context of his time.

Analytical Narration: Thucydides’ narrative style is characterized by its analytical depth. He interspersed his chronological account of events with speeches, reflections, and digressions that provided context and analysis. The speeches attributed to various leaders, while not verbatim records, were crafted to reflect the essence of their arguments and the strategic considerations at play. These rhetorical elements allowed Thucydides to explore different viewpoints and elucidate the complexities of political decision-making.

Avoidance of Myth and Legend: Unlike Herodotus, Thucydides deliberately avoided incorporating myths and legends into his historical narrative. He focused on providing a factual and sober account of events, emphasizing the importance of accuracy and reliability. This methodological rigor aimed to distinguish his work from earlier traditions of historical storytelling and establish it as a credible and authoritative source.

In conclusion, Thucydides’ methodology and critical approach revolutionized the practice of history. His commitment to empirical evidence, rational analysis, and objectivity set new standards for historical inquiry. By focusing on the causes and consequences of human actions, Thucydides provided a profound and enduring framework for understanding the complexities of history and human behavior.

Thucydides on Greek Politics and War: Context for Ancient Israel and Judah

Thucydides’ detailed accounts of Greek politics and warfare provide a rich context for understanding the broader geopolitical landscape of the ancient Near East, including the regions of Israel and Judah. His insights into the nature of power, conflict, and diplomacy in the Greek world offer valuable parallels and contrasts to the historical and political dynamics described in the Old Testament.

Greek City-States and Political Dynamics: Thucydides’ narrative highlights the intricate political relationships among the Greek city-states, particularly Athens and Sparta, and their respective allies. He details the alliances, rivalries, and shifting power dynamics that characterized the Peloponnesian War. This complex web of political interactions mirrors the alliances and conflicts among the various kingdoms and tribes in the ancient Near East, including Israel and Judah. The political fragmentation and the struggle for dominance seen in Thucydides’ Greece can be compared to the divisions and alliances described in the biblical accounts of the Israelite kingdoms and their neighbors.

Leadership and Governance: Thucydides’ analysis of leadership provides insights into the qualities and strategies of rulers during times of war and peace. Figures like Pericles of Athens and Brasidas of Sparta are depicted as strategic thinkers and influential leaders whose decisions shaped the course of the war. Similarly, the Old Testament features prominent leaders such as David, Solomon, and Hezekiah, whose leadership decisions had significant impacts on the fate of Israel and Judah. Thucydides’ emphasis on the importance of strong, strategic leadership resonates with the biblical portrayal of wise and effective rulers.

Conflict and Diplomacy: The detailed accounts of military campaigns, battles, and peace negotiations in Thucydides’ work offer a framework for understanding the nature of conflict and diplomacy in the ancient world. His descriptions of the strategic calculations and diplomatic maneuvers employed by Greek city-states provide a parallel to the military campaigns and treaties documented in the Old Testament. For example, the alliances formed by the Israelite kings with neighboring states for mutual protection or against common enemies reflect similar diplomatic efforts seen in the Greek world.

Ethical and Moral Dimensions: Thucydides’ exploration of the ethical and moral dimensions of war, including the consequences of hubris, the impact of power on human behavior, and the moral dilemmas faced by leaders, offers a valuable lens through which to view the actions and decisions of biblical figures. The moral reflections in Thucydides’ work can be compared to the ethical teachings and moral challenges presented in the Old Testament narratives, such as the consequences of disobedience to God, the pursuit of justice, and the ethical conduct of kings and prophets.

Cultural Interactions and Influence: Thucydides provides a detailed account of the cultural interactions and influences between Greek city-states and other civilizations, such as the Persians. This cultural exchange is reminiscent of the interactions between Israel, Judah, and their neighboring cultures, including the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians. Thucydides’ work helps contextualize the cultural and religious exchanges that occurred in the ancient Near East, shedding light on how external influences shaped the development of societies and their practices.

The Role of Religion: While Thucydides approached history with a secular perspective, his work acknowledges the role of religion in Greek society, especially in the context of war and politics. He describes how religious beliefs and practices influenced decisions and actions, such as consulting oracles or interpreting omens. This acknowledgment of religion’s role in public and private life offers a point of comparison with the Old Testament, where religious observance, divine guidance, and prophetic messages play central roles in the narrative.

Geopolitical Context: Thucydides’ detailed descriptions of the geopolitical landscape of the Greek world, including the strategic importance of territories, resources, and trade routes, provide a broader context for understanding the ancient Near East. The strategic significance of locations such as Athens, Sparta, and the Aegean Sea can be compared to the importance of key cities and regions in Israel and Judah, such as Jerusalem, Samaria, and the Jordan Valley. Thucydides’ work helps to elucidate the strategic considerations that influenced political and military decisions in the ancient world.

Greek Historical Events and Near Eastern Chronology

An example of how Greek history aids in understanding Near Eastern chronology involves the figure of Themistocles, a prominent Athenian statesman and general. Thucydides records that Themistocles, after falling out of favor in Athens, fled to Persia and sent a letter to King Artaxerxes, who had recently ascended the throne. Thucydides’ account, noted for its accuracy, is corroborated by other historians such as Plutarch and Charon of Lampsacus. This historical cross-reference helps pinpoint the beginning of Artaxerxes’ reign and aligns it with other significant events of the time.

Thucydides’ account of Themistocles fleeing to Persia provides a crucial reference point for determining the chronology of King Artaxerxes I’s reign. By cross-referencing this with other historical sources, we can more accurately pinpoint the beginning of Artaxerxes’ rule and align it with significant events in both Greek and Near Eastern history.

Themistocles and His Flight to Persia: Themistocles was an influential Athenian statesman and general who played a key role in the Greek victory over Persia at the Battle of Salamis. However, due to political rivalries and accusations of treason, he fell out of favor in Athens and was ostracized. Facing imminent danger, Themistocles fled to Persia, seeking refuge with the Persian king.

According to Thucydides (I, CXXXVII, 3), Themistocles sent a letter to “King Artaxerxes, son of Xerxes, who had lately come to the throne.” This statement is significant because it provides a temporal marker for when Artaxerxes I began his reign.

Corroborating Historical Sources: Plutarch, in his work “The Life of Themistocles” (XXVII, 1), also mentions that Themistocles sought refuge with Artaxerxes I, confirming that Xerxes was dead and his son Artaxerxes had ascended the throne. Additionally, Charon of Lampsacus, a contemporary historian, corroborates this account by noting the transition from Xerxes to Artaxerxes.

Pinpointing the Date: Based on these historical accounts, we can establish a timeline for the beginning of Artaxerxes I’s reign. Xerxes I was assassinated in 465 B.C.E. Following his death, Artaxerxes I ascended the throne.

To further narrow down the date, we consider the timeline of Themistocles’ activities. Themistocles’ flight to Persia is generally placed around 465-464 B.C.E., shortly after Xerxes’ assassination. This aligns with the accounts of Thucydides and Plutarch, indicating that Artaxerxes I began his reign in 465 B.C.E.

Significance and Alignment with Other Events: Pinpointing the beginning of Artaxerxes I’s reign to 465 B.C.E. helps align Greek and Near Eastern chronologies. This date is significant because it provides a reference point for other historical events. For example, understanding the timeline of Artaxerxes I’s reign helps contextualize subsequent Persian interactions with Greek city-states, including the support for Sparta during the latter stages of the Peloponnesian War.

Furthermore, this chronological marker aids in aligning events in the Old Testament, particularly the return of the Jewish exiles to Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the temple, which occurred under the Persian kings, including Artaxerxes I. The decree allowing the rebuilding of Jerusalem is traditionally dated to the 20th year of Artaxerxes I’s reign, around 445 B.C.E. (Nehemiah 2:1-8).

The historical cross-references provided by Thucydides, Plutarch, and Charon of Lampsacus establish that Artaxerxes I began his reign in 465 B.C.E. This date is crucial for aligning Greek and Near Eastern chronologies and provides a framework for understanding the broader historical context of the period.

Legacy and Influence on Historiography

Thucydides’ “The History of the Peloponnesian War” offers valuable insights into Greek politics and war that enhance our understanding of the historical and geopolitical context of ancient Israel and Judah. His detailed analysis of leadership, conflict, diplomacy, and cultural interactions provides parallels and contrasts that deepen our comprehension of the complex dynamics that shaped the ancient Near East.

Thucydides’ contributions to the field of historiography are profound and enduring, marking a significant departure from the methods of his predecessors and establishing foundational principles that continue to influence historical scholarship.

Pioneering Critical History: Thucydides’ approach to history was revolutionary in its emphasis on critical analysis and empirical evidence. Unlike Herodotus, who often included myths and legends in his narratives, Thucydides focused strictly on factual accuracy and logical coherence. His insistence on corroborating accounts through direct observation and reliable sources set a new standard for historical writing, emphasizing the importance of evidence-based history.

Scientific and Secular Approach: Thucydides is often regarded as one of the first historians to adopt a scientific approach to history. He sought to explain events through natural causes and human actions, rather than attributing them to the whims of the gods. This secular perspective laid the groundwork for modern historiography, where historians strive to understand historical phenomena through rational analysis and empirical data.

Detailed Examination of Causation: Thucydides’ meticulous examination of causation in the Peloponnesian War is one of his most significant contributions. He distinguished between immediate triggers and underlying causes, providing a nuanced analysis of the complex interplay of political, economic, and social factors. This analytical framework has become a cornerstone of historical methodology, guiding historians in their efforts to uncover the deeper reasons behind historical events.

Realism and Political Analysis: Thucydides’ work is characterized by a realist perspective on politics and human nature. He explored themes of power, ambition, and the inherent flaws in human behavior, offering insights into the motivations and actions of individuals and states. His realistic portrayal of political and military strategies has influenced the field of political science and remains relevant in discussions of international relations and conflict studies.

Influence on Later Historians: Thucydides’ “The History of the Peloponnesian War” has had a profound impact on subsequent generations of historians. His critical approach and methodological rigor were adopted and refined by later historians such as Polybius, Tacitus, and Livy. These historians built upon Thucydides’ legacy, further developing the principles of critical historiography and expanding the scope of historical inquiry.

Educational Impact: Thucydides’ work has long been a staple in the education of historians. His “History of the Peloponnesian War” is frequently studied in academic institutions for its methodological innovations and rich narrative. The text serves as both a primary source for understanding the ancient Greek world and a model for rigorous historical analysis. Thucydides’ emphasis on critical thinking and evidence-based conclusions continues to inspire students and scholars alike.

Enduring Relevance: The themes and insights in Thucydides’ work remain relevant to contemporary discussions of history and politics. His exploration of the cyclical nature of power, the dangers of hubris, and the complexities of human behavior resonates with modern readers. The principles he established for historical writing—accuracy, critical analysis, and rational explanation—continue to guide historians in their quest to understand the past.

Impact on Political Thought: Thucydides’ realist perspective has significantly influenced political thought, particularly in the fields of international relations and political theory. His analysis of power dynamics, strategic decision-making, and the consequences of war offers valuable lessons for understanding modern geopolitical conflicts. The “Melian Dialogue,” a key passage in his work, is often cited in discussions of realpolitik and the ethics of power.

In conclusion, Thucydides’ legacy in historiography is marked by his pioneering methods, critical approach, and profound insights into human nature and political dynamics. His “History of the Peloponnesian War” continues to be a foundational text for historians and scholars, shaping the discipline of history and influencing broader fields of study. Thucydides’ contributions have ensured that his work remains a touchstone for understanding the complexities of history and the timeless patterns of human behavior.

Criticisms and Controversies

While Thucydides is widely respected for his contributions to historiography, his work has not been without criticism and controversy. Scholars have debated various aspects of his methodology, interpretations, and narrative choices, highlighting both strengths and perceived weaknesses in his approach.

Accuracy and Bias: One of the primary criticisms of Thucydides centers on the accuracy of his accounts. Despite his emphasis on empirical evidence and firsthand observation, some scholars argue that Thucydides may have introduced bias into his narrative. His close association with the Athenian elite and his own political and military career might have influenced his portrayal of events and key figures. Critics suggest that Thucydides’ admiration for Pericles and his disdain for certain demagogues, such as Cleon, could have skewed his accounts.

Selective Reporting: Thucydides has been accused of selective reporting, emphasizing certain events while downplaying or omitting others. Some critics argue that his focus on military and political leaders overlooks the experiences of ordinary people and the broader social impact of the Peloponnesian War. This selective reporting can give a skewed perspective on the conflict, emphasizing the strategic and elite aspects while neglecting the human cost.

Subjectivity in Speeches: Thucydides’ use of speeches is a notable feature of his work, but it has also been a source of controversy. While he claimed to reconstruct the essence of what was said, critics argue that these speeches are often more reflective of Thucydides’ own views and rhetorical style than the actual words of the speakers. This raises questions about the historical accuracy of these speeches and their role in shaping the reader’s understanding of events.

Omission of Key Events: Some historians have pointed out that Thucydides omits significant events and figures that were crucial to the Peloponnesian War. For example, the actions and contributions of certain Spartan and Athenian leaders are underrepresented or ignored. These omissions could be due to Thucydides’ limited access to information or his narrative focus, but they nonetheless leave gaps in the historical record.

Complexity and Density: Thucydides’ dense and complex writing style has been both praised and criticized. While his analytical depth and detailed accounts are valuable, some readers find his prose difficult to follow. The intricate structure and heavy use of technical terms can make the “History of the Peloponnesian War” challenging for modern readers, potentially limiting its accessibility and impact.

Moral Ambiguity: Thucydides’ work is often seen as morally ambiguous, reflecting a realist perspective that emphasizes power and pragmatism over ethical considerations. Critics argue that his focus on power dynamics and strategic calculations can appear to condone ruthless behavior and ethical compromises. This has led to debates about whether Thucydides’ work promotes a cynical view of human nature and politics.

Contradictions and Inconsistencies: Some scholars have identified contradictions and inconsistencies in Thucydides’ narrative. These discrepancies might arise from the challenges of compiling a comprehensive history based on diverse sources and testimonies. However, they also highlight the difficulties inherent in historical reconstruction and the potential for subjective interpretation.

Reception and Interpretation: Thucydides’ work has been interpreted in various ways over the centuries, and not all interpretations have been favorable. Some later historians and political theorists have critiqued Thucydides for his perceived cynicism and determinism. Others have questioned his portrayal of democracy and leadership, suggesting that his emphasis on elite decision-making underplays the role of broader societal forces.

In conclusion, while Thucydides’ “History of the Peloponnesian War” is a seminal work in the field of historiography, it is not without its criticisms and controversies. Debates about his accuracy, bias, selective reporting, and narrative style highlight the complexities of historical writing and the challenges of reconstructing the past. Despite these criticisms, Thucydides’ contributions to the discipline of history remain invaluable, providing a foundational text that continues to inspire and provoke critical reflection among scholars and readers.

Conclusion

Thucydides’ “The History of the Peloponnesian War” stands as a monumental achievement in the field of historiography, offering an unparalleled account of the conflict between Athens and Sparta. His rigorous methodology, emphasis on empirical evidence, and analytical depth have set a high standard for historical writing that continues to influence scholars and historians.

Through his detailed narrative, Thucydides not only chronicled the events of the Peloponnesian War but also provided profound insights into human nature, political power, and the complexities of war. His exploration of leadership, strategy, and the ethical dilemmas faced by individuals and states has left a lasting legacy, making his work relevant to both historical and contemporary studies.

Despite the criticisms and controversies surrounding his work, Thucydides’ contributions remain invaluable. His focus on critical analysis and factual accuracy marked a significant departure from earlier historical traditions, laying the groundwork for modern historiography. Thucydides’ ability to blend narrative with analytical rigor has ensured that his “History of the Peloponnesian War” remains a foundational text, offering timeless lessons on the nature of power, conflict, and human behavior.

In understanding Thucydides’ legacy, we recognize the enduring importance of his approach to history—one that prioritizes evidence, rational analysis, and a deep understanding of the forces that shape human events. His work continues to inspire and challenge historians, reminding us of the complexities of the past and the necessity of a critical and reflective approach to studying history.

About the Author

SCROLL THROUGH THE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES BELOW

BIBLE TRANSLATION AND TEXTUAL CRITICISM

BIBLICAL STUDIES / BIBLE BACKGROUND / HISTORY OF THE BIBLE/ INTERPRETATION

EARLY CHRISTIANITY

HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY

CHRISTIAN APOLOGETIC EVANGELISM

TECHNOLOGY AND THE CHRISTIAN

CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY

CHRISTIAN DEVOTIONALS

CHRISTIAN FICTION