Tyre: The Phoenician Maritime Powerhouse

Ancient Origins and Biblical Recognition

Tyre, a prominent city in Phoenicia, located strategically along the Mediterranean coast, was known for its formidable maritime and commercial capabilities. Although its exact foundation date remains unspecified in historical records, Tyre is acknowledged within the biblical narrative as a significant entity by the time of Israel’s establishment in the Promised Land, around 1467 B.C.E. Its mention in the context of Asher’s tribal boundaries highlights its status as a fortified, independent city, signifying its importance from an early stage (Joshua 19:24, 29; 2 Samuel 24:7).

Diplomatic and Commercial Ties with Israel

The relationship between Tyre and the Israelite kingdoms was marked by periods of cooperation and mutual benefit, particularly during the reigns of David and Solomon. The Tyrians, under King Hiram, provided cedar timber and skilled labor for the construction of David’s palace and Solomon’s Temple, showcasing a partnership that extended beyond mere trade to include architectural and cultural exchange (2 Samuel 5:11; 1 Chronicles 14:1; 1 Kings 5:1-10; 7:1-8; 2 Chronicles 2:3-14). This collaboration was characterized by a commercial agreement in which Tyre received supplies of wheat, barley, oil, and wine in exchange for their goods and services (1 Kings 5:11, 12; 2 Chronicles 2:15).

Tyre’s Maritime and Economic Ascendancy

Tyre’s ascension to a leading sea power is underscored by its advanced maritime technology and the far-reaching voyages of its commercial fleet, including the famed “Tarshish” ships. The cooperative venture between Solomon and the king of Tyre for expeditions to Ophir exemplifies Tyre’s pivotal role in the ancient world’s economy, facilitating the import of gold and other precious commodities (1 Kings 9:26-28; 10:11, 22; 2 Chronicles 9:21).

Religious Practices and Canaanite Heritage

Despite the economic and diplomatic engagements with Israel, the Tyrians remained distinct in their religious orientation, adhering to a form of Baal worship centered on deities such as Melkart and Astarte (Ashtoreth). This religious identity aligns with their Canaanite heritage, highlighting a cultural and spiritual divergence from Israel. The marriage of Ahab, king of Israel, to Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians, further entwines Tyre with the narrative of Israel’s religious conflicts, as Jezebel’s fervent promotion of Baal worship and her efforts to suppress the worship of Jehovah mark a turbulent chapter in the history of Israelite-Tyrian relations (1 Kings 16:29, 31; 18:4, 13, 19).

Tyre’s mention in biblical accounts not only attests to its historical and strategic significance but also illuminates the complexities of its interactions with the Israelite kingdoms. Through its contributions to architecture, commerce, and maritime exploration, Tyre emerged as a vital player in the ancient Near Eastern landscape. However, its religious practices and affiliations also positioned it as a spiritual adversary, illustrating the multifaceted nature of Tyre’s legacy within the biblical narrative and the broader context of ancient history.

Divine Judgment on Tyre: From Prosperity to Prophesied Downfall

Economic Growth and Spiritual Decline

Tyre’s ascent to greatness was marked by its prowess in manufacturing and commerce, becoming a central hub for the production of metal objects, glassware, and the famed purple dyes. This industrial and commercial expansion brought Tyre not only wealth but also an overbearing pride and self-assurance. The city’s merchants and tradespeople, enriched by their trade, considered themselves the esteemed princes and nobles of the earth, as noted in Isaiah 23:8. However, Tyre’s prosperity was coupled with a growing opposition to Jehovah, evidenced by its conspiracies with neighboring nations against God’s chosen people (Psalm 83:2-8). This defiance and disregard for divine sovereignty were the true causes of Tyre’s condemnation by God.

Prophetic Warnings and Condemnations

The divine response to Tyre’s arrogance and exploitation of others, including the Israelites, was articulated through several prophets. The exploitation and the city’s involvement in slave trading, specifically selling Israelites into slavery, were explicitly condemned. Joel 3:4-8 and Amos 1:9, 10 detail these injustices, highlighting the moral and ethical transgressions that precipitated Tyre’s downfall.

Isaiah’s prophecy foretold that Tyre would be forgotten for seventy years, suggesting a period of desolation and loss of prominence (Isaiah 23:1-18). This prophecy, alongside Jeremiah’s, which includes Tyre among the nations destined to experience Jehovah’s wrath and to serve the king of Babylon for seventy years, aligns with the historical campaign of Nebuchadnezzar against Tyre (Jeremiah 25:8-17, 22, 27; 27:2-7; 47:2-4). These prophecies collectively indicate a divine retribution corresponding to Tyre’s actions and attitudes.

Ezekiel’s Vivid Depictions of Tyre’s Fate

Ezekiel’s prophecies provide a detailed account of the impending judgment on Tyre, portraying the city metaphorically as a magnificent ship doomed to sink (Ezekiel 27:3-36). Tyre’s rulers, likened to a self-proclaimed deity, were forewarned of their impending removal and destruction (Ezekiel 28:2-19). This imagery emphasizes the stark contrast between Tyre’s former glory and its prophesied destruction, underscoring the principle that pride and defiance against God lead to inevitable downfall.

The prophetic narratives concerning Tyre serve as a cautionary tale about the dangers of pride, economic exploitation, and spiritual apostasy. Tyre’s story, from its zenith as a commercial and maritime powerhouse to its prophesied desolation, reflects the overarching biblical theme that divine justice will prevail over arrogance and disobedience. Through the lens of biblical prophecy, Tyre’s history is not only a record of geopolitical shifts but also a testament to the moral and spiritual lessons that resonate throughout the ages.

The Final Siege: Tyre’s Downfall and Legacy

Nebuchadnezzar’s Siege and Its Aftermath

The siege of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar marked a significant chapter in the city’s history, demonstrating the lengths to which the Babylonian king went to subdue the city. The physical toll on his soldiers, as described in Ezekiel 29:17-20, underscores the siege’s intensity and the hardships endured. Despite these efforts, the exact outcome of Nebuchadnezzar’s siege remains partially veiled in history, with indications that Tyre sustained considerable damage, yet the city was not completely obliterated during this campaign. This resilience allowed Tyre to later contribute to the post-exilic rebuilding efforts in Jerusalem, providing cedar timbers for the Second Temple and resuming trade (Ezra 3:7; Nehemiah 13:16).

Prophetic Declarations and Alexander’s Conquest

The prophecy in Zechariah 9:3, 4, foretelling Tyre’s destruction despite its attempts at fortification and wealth accumulation, sets the stage for the city’s eventual downfall. Alexander the Great’s conquest of Tyre in 332 B.C.E. brought this prophecy to a dramatic fulfillment. Alexander’s strategic ingenuity, manifest in his decision to construct a causeway using debris from the mainland city to reach the island fortress, exemplifies the remarkable lengths taken to overcome Tyre’s defenses. Ezekiel’s prophecy about scraping Tyre like the top of a rock and throwing her stones, timber, and dust into the water (Ezekiel 26:4, 12) eerily prefigures the methodical dismantling and repurposing of the old city’s ruins to breach the island city’s walls.

The Siege’s Devastating Outcome

The siege culminated in a significant loss of life and liberty for the inhabitants of Tyre. The execution of 2,000 of Tyre’s leaders and the sale of 30,000 inhabitants into slavery attest to the siege’s brutality and the stark reality of ancient warfare. The fall of Tyre to Alexander not only marked a pivotal moment in military history but also symbolized the fulfillment of divine judgment against the city’s longstanding pride and rebellion against God.

Tyre’s Enduring Legacy

The story of Tyre, from its zenith as a Phoenician maritime power to its dramatic downfall at the hands of Alexander the Great, encapsulates the city’s enduring legacy within biblical history and ancient Near Eastern geopolitics. Despite its eventual destruction, Tyre’s contributions to the region’s commercial, architectural, and cultural landscapes leave an indelible mark on history. The biblical prophecies concerning Tyre and their fulfillment underscore the themes of divine sovereignty and the inevitable consequences of defying God’s will.

The siege and ultimate destruction of Tyre serve as a testament to the city’s historical significance and the fulfillment of biblical prophecy. Tyre’s story is a compelling narrative of resilience, innovation, and hubris, culminating in a dramatic confrontation with one of history’s most renowned military leaders. The archaeological and historical evidence, together with the biblical record, provides a multifaceted perspective on Tyre’s rise, its strategic importance, and its prophesied fall, offering valuable insights into the complex interplay between human ambition and divine decree.

Tyre in the Context of New Testament Witness

Revival and Significance in the First Century C.E.

After its catastrophic encounter with Alexander the Great, Tyre experienced a period of revival under the Seleucid dynasty, regaining its stature as a significant maritime center by the first century C.E. This resurgence underscores the city’s resilience and its continued importance as a commercial and cultural hub in the Mediterranean region. During this period, Tyre, alongside Sidon, maintained its prominence, evidenced by the people from these cities seeking out Jesus Christ during his ministry in Galilee.

Interactions with Jesus’ Ministry

The Gospels recount instances of interaction between Jesus and the inhabitants of the Tyre and Sidon area, highlighting the broad reach of his teachings and miracles. Mark 3:8-10 and Luke 6:17-19 depict individuals from Tyre and Sidon among the multitudes that came to Jesus, drawn by his message of hope and the healings he performed. This cross-regional attraction to Jesus’ ministry indicates the impact of his presence and the appeal of his ministry, transcending geographical and cultural boundaries.

The Syrophoenician Woman’s Faith

A poignant episode in Jesus’ ministry involves his encounter with a Syrophoenician woman from the vicinity of Tyre. The accounts in Matthew 15:21-29 and Mark 7:24-31 describe Jesus’ healing of her demon-possessed daughter as a testament to the woman’s faith and the opportunities of Jesus’ mission. This interaction, occurring in a region historically associated with paganism and opposition to Israel, underscores the transformative power of faith and the expansion of Jesus’ message beyond the Jewish community.

A Reflection on Tyre and Sidon’s Potential for Repentance

Jesus’ reflection on the potential receptivity of Tyre and Sidon to his message, compared to the response of cities like Chorazin and Bethsaida, offers a critical commentary on the nature of faith and repentance. In Matthew 11:20-22 and Luke 10:13-14, Jesus suggests that the miracles performed in Israelite towns, had they been done in Tyre and Sidon, would have led to a greater display of repentance among their pagan inhabitants. This statement not only highlights the missed opportunities for faith among his immediate audience but also suggests a broader, inclusive vision of salvation that transcends ethnic and religious boundaries.

The mention of Tyre in the New Testament narratives, against the backdrop of its storied past and its interactions with Jesus’ ministry, reveals the city’s enduring significance in the biblical worldview. Tyre’s revival and its inhabitants’ engagement with the transformative message of Jesus Christ illustrate the dynamic interplay between historical legacy and spiritual renewal. Through these biblical accounts, Tyre emerges not only as a geographical marker but also as a symbol of the potential for faith and repentance across all communities, reinforcing the scope of Jesus’ mission and message.

Sidon: The Ancient Beacon of Phoenician Civilization

Foundational Legacy

Sidon, deriving its name from Canaan’s firstborn son, stood as the progenitor city of the Phoenicians, later known by the Greeks as Sidonians. This ancient seaport, now called Saida, played a pivotal role in the early development of Phoenician culture and commerce. As the initial principal city, Sidon’s influence extended beyond its immediate borders, seeding the establishment of Tyre, a colony that would eventually overshadow Sidon in prominence. Yet, Sidon maintained its identity, intertwined with Tyre’s history, as evidenced by biblical references where the king of Tyre is occasionally referred to as “the king of the Sidonians” (1 Kings 16:31).

Geographical and Cultural Significance

Sidon’s geographical positioning on the Mediterranean coast endowed it with strategic maritime advantages, facilitating its rise as a major trading center. The city’s harbors, rare along the Phoenician coastline, became nexus points for overland caravans and sea routes, merging the wealth of the inland with the riches of the Mediterranean. This commercial prowess was matched by the Sidonians’ skills in craftsmanship, particularly in glass manufacture, textile weaving, dyeing, and woodworking, contributions that are well-documented in scriptures (Isaiah 23:2; 1 Kings 5:6; 1 Chronicles 22:4; Ezra 3:7).

Biblical Interactions and Prophetic Mention

Sidon’s historical and prophetic significance is deeply interwoven with the narrative of the Israelite tribes. Despite being designated as part of the Promised Land, Sidon remained largely unconquered, coexisting with the tribes of Asher and Zebulun in a relationship marked by both conflict and cooperation (Joshua 19:24, 28; Judges 1:31, 32). The city’s mention in the account of Elijah’s sojourn in Zarephath, “which belongs to Sidon,” during a famine, underscores its importance in Israel’s prophetic history (1 Kings 17:9; Luke 4:25, 26).

Contribution to Maritime and Commercial Dominance

Sidon’s legacy as a maritime and commercial power is encapsulated in its contribution to Phoenician expansion and the broader Mediterranean trade networks. The city’s skilled sailors, rowers, and craftsmen played a crucial role in establishing the Phoenicians as a dominant sea-faring civilization. The Sidonians’ expertise in navigation, shipbuilding, and sea trade contributed significantly to the cultural and economic exchanges that defined the ancient Mediterranean world.

Spiritual and Cultural Influence

Beyond its economic and maritime achievements, Sidon contributed to the spiritual and cultural tapestry of the region. The city’s practices, including its renowned craftsmanship and religious rites, influenced neighboring cultures and played a part in the syncretic traditions that characterized the ancient Near East. The interaction between the Sidonians and the Israelites, particularly during the reigns of David and Solomon, highlights a period of mutual respect and collaboration, despite underlying religious and cultural differences.

Sidon’s story, from its foundational role in Phoenician civilization to its interactions with the Israelite kingdoms, reflects a city of immense historical and cultural significance. Its achievements in commerce, craftsmanship, and maritime exploration left an indelible mark on the ancient world, contributing to the legacy of the Phoenicians as pioneers of trade and navigation. Through the lens of biblical history, Sidon emerges not only as a city of wealth and skill but also as a critical player in the unfolding narrative of the ancient Near East, offering valuable insights into the complexities of historical interaction and cultural exchange.

Sidonian Religion and Its Impact on Biblical History

Depravity in Worship Practices

The religious practices of the Sidonians, marked by devotion to Ashtoreth (also known as Astarte), were characterized by rituals that the biblical text describes as depraved, including lewd sex orgies. This aspect of Sidonian worship, deeply entwined with fertility cults, stood in stark contrast to the monotheistic worship of Jehovah by the Israelites. The incorporation of such practices among the Israelites, facilitated by their proximity and interactions with the Sidonians, led to significant spiritual decline and idolatry within Israel (Judges 10:6, 7, 11-13).

Influence on Israelite Leadership

The Sidonians’ religious influence extended to the highest echelons of Israelite leadership, most notably affecting King Solomon and King Ahab. Solomon, swayed by his Sidonian consorts, was led astray from his devotion to Jehovah, embracing the worship of Ashtoreth among other deities (1 Kings 11:1, 4-6; 2 Kings 23:13). Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel, a princess from Sidon, further exacerbated the issue, as Jezebel actively promoted the worship of Baal and Ashtoreth in Israel, challenging the prophets of Jehovah and seeking to eradicate the worship of the true God (1 Kings 16:29-33; 18:18, 19).

Divine Judgment and Prophetic Warnings

The consequences of Sidon’s religious practices and their corrupting influence on Israel were addressed through divine judgment and prophetic warnings. The prophets of Jehovah, including Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Joel, and Zechariah, pronounced judgments against Sidon, foretelling destruction and desolation as recompense for their idolatry and for leading Israel into sin (Isaiah 23:4, 12; Jeremiah 25:17, 22; 27:1-8; 47:4; Ezekiel 28:20-24; 32:30; Joel 3:4-8; Zechariah 9:1-4). These prophetic declarations underscored Jehovah’s intolerance of idolatry and His sovereignty over the nations, including those that led His people astray.

Historical Subjugation and Legacy

The dominion of Sidon passed through the hands of successive empires—Babylonian, Persian, Greek, and Roman—each leaving its mark on the city. This cycle of conquest and subjugation served as a fulfillment of the prophetic warnings and illustrated the temporal nature of earthly power and the divine oversight of historical events. Sidon’s legacy, from its religious practices to its influence on neighboring cultures and its eventual subjugation, offers a cautionary tale about the spiritual dangers of idolatry and the inevitability of divine justice.

The history of Sidon, particularly its religious practices and the resulting consequences, provides a profound study in the dynamics of spiritual influence, apostasy, and divine judgment. The intertwining of Sidonian religion with the spiritual heritage of Israel highlights the challenges of maintaining faithfulness in the face of pervasive cultural and religious pressures. Through the lens of biblical history, Sidon emerges as a symbol of both the allure and the peril of idolatry, serving as a reminder of the paramount importance of allegiance to God and the enduring truth of His word.

Sidon in the New Testament Era: Encounters with Christ and Apostolic Witness

The Compassion of Christ towards Sidon

The first century C.E. marked a period of significant interaction between Sidon and the ministry of Jesus Christ, illustrating the city’s continued relevance in the broader narrative of biblical history. Despite the historical backdrop of Sidonian idolatry, Jesus highlighted the potential receptivity of Sidon to His message, contrasting it with the unbelief prevalent in some Jewish communities. His assertion that Sidon would find Judgment Day more tolerable than the cities of Chorazin and Bethsaida underscores the scope of His ministry and the possibility of redemption for all peoples, including those outside the traditional bounds of Israel (Matthew 11:20-22; Luke 10:13, 14).

Faith Across Cultural Boundaries

The encounter between Jesus and the Phoenician woman from the region of Sidon exemplifies the cross-cultural reach of Jesus’ message and the power of faith. This woman’s faith in Jesus for the healing of her daughter stands as a testament to the belief that transcends ethnic and cultural barriers, highlighting the opportunity of Jesus’ salvation (Matthew 15:21-28; Mark 7:24-31). This event not only sheds light on Jesus’ compassion and willingness to heal and save but also on the makeup of those drawn to His teachings, including Gentiles from regions like Sidon.

Sidonian Presence Among Jesus’ Followers

The mention of people from Sidon among the crowds that sought Jesus’ healing touch further emphasizes the region’s interaction with the burgeoning Christian movement. These individuals, whether Jews, proselytes, or Gentiles intrigued by Jesus’ teachings, signify the appeal of His message and the early inklings of Christianity’s spread beyond Jewish communities (Mark 3:7, 8; Luke 6:17).

Apostle Paul’s Connection with Sidon

The narrative of Paul’s journey to Rome, as a prisoner, includes a brief but significant stop in Sidon, where he was allowed to visit with fellow believers. This episode, recorded in Acts 27:1, 3, illustrates the early Christian community’s presence in Sidon, marking the city as a part of the burgeoning network of Christian fellowship and support across the Roman Empire. The hospitality and care extended to Paul by the brothers in Sidon underscore the spread and impact of Christian witness and the bonds of brotherhood that transcended geographical and cultural divides.

Herod Agrippa I’s Conflict with Sidon

The historical account of Herod Agrippa I’s ill-fated interaction with the Sidonians, as detailed in Acts 12:20-23, further illustrates the political and economic ties that continued to bind Sidon with the ruling powers of the region. The Sidonians’ dependence on Agrippa for food supplies and the subsequent reconciliation attempt highlight the complexities of Sidon’s political landscape during this period. The divine judgment upon Herod, seen in his gruesome death following his acceptance of divine accolades, serves as a cautionary tale about pride and the providence of God within the historical narratives of the New Testament.

Sidon’s history during the first century C.E., as captured in the New Testament, presents a city that, despite its pagan past, becomes a backdrop for significant episodes in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ and the early Christian community. These interactions underscore the transformative potential of faith and the expansive reach of the Gospel, bridging cultural and religious divides to foster a community of believers united in Christ. Through these narratives, Sidon emerges not only as a historical city of note but also as a participant in the unfolding story of redemption and the spread of Christianity in the ancient world.

Tracing the Phoenician Legacy: Tyre and Sidon Through Archaeology and Ancient Texts

Archaeological and Textual Insights into Phoenician Pioneers

The legacy of Tyre and Sidon, the eminent Phoenician cities, is vividly captured in a tapestry of archaeological findings and ancient literary records. These sources collectively illuminate the cities’ significant roles in the ancient Near Eastern milieu, dating back to around 1400 B.C.E., a period marked by their mention in texts such as the Ras Shamra tablets from Ugarit. These documents not only affirm the historical presence of Tyre and Sidon but also shed light on their cultural and economic interconnections with neighboring regions.

Sidon’s Royal Heritage Unearthed

The discovery of two black basalt sarcophagi in Sidon, attributed to its kings, underscores the city’s royal stature and its elaborate burial traditions. Inscriptions on these sarcophagi serve as a direct link to Sidon’s regal past, offering invaluable insights into the identities and lineage of its rulers. This find, alongside references in Egyptian literature to Tyre and Sidon, highlights the extensive trade networks and diplomatic relations that defined their interactions with the ancient world’s great powers.

Tyre and Sidon in Egyptian and Assyrian Chronicles

References to Tyre and Sidon in “The Craft of the Scribe” and “The Report of Wenamun” from the Egyptian corpus provide a glimpse into their standing during the New Kingdom era. The Amarna letters, diplomatic correspondence to the Egyptian pharaohs from Canaanite city-state kings, further corroborate Tyre and Sidon’s prominence in the regional politics and economy of the 14th century B.C.E.

Assyrian Conquests and Diplomatic Treaties

The Assyrian royal annals document the tributary relationships and military campaigns involving Tyre and Sidon, with kings like Ashurnasirpal II, Shalmaneser III, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon interacting with these cities. The treaty between Esar-haddon and King Baal of Tyre, specifically addressing maritime concerns, along with Ashurbanipal’s acknowledgment of tribute from Ba’al, king of Tyre, alongside Manasseh, king of Judah, underscores the complex web of alliances and subjugations that characterized the Assyrian Empire’s relations with the Phoenician cities.

Biblical Foundations and Historical Estimations

The biblical narrative provides the earliest known reference to the region, with Genesis 10:15-19 mentioning Sidon as a primary settlement of the Canaanites, indicating its establishment in the post-diluvian world. The subsequent mention of Tyre in the allocation of land to the tribe of Asher during Joshua’s leadership offers a foundational date for Tyre’s significance in the historical and biblical landscape.

Evaluating Sidon and Tyre’s Chronological Origins

Considering a literal biblical chronology and estimating generational spans, Sidon’s founding can be traced back to approximately 2300-2200 B.C.E., shortly after the dispersal of Noah’s descendants. Tyre’s establishment, inferred from its mention in the book of Joshua and the subsequent division of Canaan, suggests a foundation around 1400-1380 B.C.E. This periodization, based on biblical records and corroborated by archaeological evidence, frames the historical contours of Tyre and Sidon within the broader narrative of ancient Near Eastern civilization.

Excursion On Literal Bible Chronology

If we consider a literal biblical chronology, Noah’s Flood occurred in 2348 B.C.E. Following this, Noah’s descendants began to populate the earth. Canaan, the ancestor of the Sidonians, was a grandson of Noah. If we assume a generation is roughly 30 years, and Sidon was established by the first or second generation after Canaan, we might estimate that Sidon was established around 2300-2200 B.C.E.

The mention of Tyre in the book of Joshua would place its establishment after the Exodus and the 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. If we follow a literal biblical chronology with the Exodus in 1446 B.C.E. and the beginning of the conquest of Canaan in 1406 B.C.E., then Tyre would have been established sometime after these events.

The book of Joshua details the division of the land among the tribes of Israel, which took several years. The entire process, including the conquest and settlement, is generally believed to have taken about 25 years, placing us around 1380 B.C.E.

Tyre is mentioned in Joshua 19:29 during the allocation of the land to the tribe of Asher, which suggests that Tyre was already a notable location at this point. If we assume that Tyre was established during or shortly before this period of conquest and settlement, a rough estimate might place the establishment of Tyre around 1400-1380 B.C.E.

These are rough estimates based on a literal interpretation of biblical chronology. The actual dates could be different depending on various factors, including the actual length of a generation, the time between the establishment of Sidon and Tyre, and the exact timeline of the conquest and settlement of Canaan.

End of Excursion

Conclusion

The archaeological discoveries and ancient texts that reference Tyre and Sidon serve as testament to their enduring legacy as principal cities of the Phoenician civilization. From royal sarcophagi in Sidon to diplomatic correspondences in the Amarna letters, the historical and archaeological evidence underscores the significant roles these cities played in the commercial, political, and cultural exchanges of the ancient world. Through a careful integration of biblical chronology with archaeological findings, the rich history of Tyre and Sidon continues to unfold, offering a deeper understanding of their place in the annals of ancient history.

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